933被浏览228,988分享邀请回答zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/斯特鲁普效应在抄写在笔记本上的语法点当中，那些你很不了解的知识点（复习时才顿悟有这回事），可以用浅色荧光笔（譬如水绿色、浅橙色）划上；那些完全不了解的知识点（复习时一点也不知道有这回事），可以再用红色笔画下划线。3，找些跟本章节对应的习题来做，以单项选择题、填空题为宜。此为第三遍复习。TIPS：对于应试的同学，要学会分析考点，要有批判性思维，多讨论和请教。真题答案也有纰漏，尽信答案不如无答案。4，略读本章节的笔记。此为第四遍复习。5，坚持英语写作，应用当天学到的语法点。此为第五遍复习。6，每复习完3个章节，重新略读一次前面2个章节，加强记忆。此为第六遍复习。----------------------------------------------------折叠线---------------------------------------------------【经验提点】1，心理学家George Miller发现，人的短暂记忆或长期记忆都和数字“7”有关。人一次能记住的数量不超过7，且人经过7次不同程度的记忆，基本上能成为长期记忆。因此，以不同方式去学习，而不是重复相同的学习方式。譬如，直接略读7次章节，不如1次略读、1次精读、1次做笔记、1次做题、1次写作和1次温习笔记搭配的立体式学习方法。2， 根据艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线，遗忘的规律是先快后慢，特别是识记后的48小时，遗忘率达到72%。所以，要及时复习 ，隔几小时与隔几天复习不是一回事。3，欲速则不达，认真复习一遍，比马虎复习两三遍要强。刚开始，我约莫一个星期完成一个章节的复习；到后来，大概2-3天就完成一个章节的复习。备战高考期间，在兼顾其它科目的情况下，我花了3个月来完成整个英语语法体系的复习计划。4，为什么一定要抄写，精读不可以吗？用EverNote这类数码笔记软件可以吗？答：是的，不可以。单靠阅读，白纸黑字，很容易犯困，也难以坚持。抄写笔记，一来手眼并用，比阅读更耐困；二来累积厚厚的一本笔记本，让你更有成就感。至于EverNote，作为一个从EverNote 1.x用起的“资深”用户，我可以负责地告诉你：数码笔记App适合互联网知识管理、文库建立、GTD执行力管理，但是，不适合下决心学好英语语法的人，尤其大中学生。当你完成复习计划后，收集有趣或有用的语法知识文章，EverNote可以大派用场，但在这一切之前，全面系统的英语语法学习，更需要一个能持之以恒的学习方式，譬如用白纸黑笔，而不是隔几分钟就弹出一个网易新闻推送、微信消息通知的电子屏幕。【英语语法好，有什么用】对于英语使用：1，语法不好，则阅读英语不会断句，怕长句，分不清主谓宾补语；2，语法不好，写作和笔译一定不会好。一者，通篇语病，写句子时不会先在脑海里过滤一下是否符合语法；二者，只会用简单句型，不会写漂亮的长短句，也不会运用高级语法，譬如独立主格。对于应试（以我的高考备考经历为例）：1，单项选择题：复习前15题我一般错6-12题，复习后错3-5题，做一定题量后错0-3题；2，完形填空题：复习前20题一般错8-15题，复习后错2-5题；3，改错题：我的最爱，复习前10题一般错3-5题，复习后错0-1题；4，阅读题：遇到长句，懂得断句，不再是长句认识你，你不认识长句。5，写作题：满分25分，复习前一般12-18分，18分是那天老师心情好，大发慈悲才有；复习后22分以上，老师就是不肯给我25分。6，150分满分，如果现在你是80-100分的水平，复习语法并坚持真题练习，有20-40分的提高不是问题。同学，要知道你是从80分提高到120分，不是从130分提高到150分呀！【关于高考英语短时间提高的方向】1，KO了英语语法，加上一定习题练习，单项选择、改错题、写作题可以大幅提高。完形填空、阅读的提高幅度不会太大，这两个题型更考验逻辑思维能力、猜词能力、词汇量和阅读量，这些不是短时间可以提高的。2，提高成绩，要么增加学习时间，要么提高学习效率。对于备战高考的人，分分秒秒消逝的时间和逐日降温的学习热情是我们必需直面的敌人。所以，请尽一切努力去督促自己，请根据自身情况去提高和修正学习方法。3，成绩只是一时的胜负，知识和能力则是受用一生的事情。请珍惜曾经那么用功的自己，不要努力一两个月就轻言放弃。【关于应试英语写作的那些事儿】1，整篇文章，务求零语病。 宁可用二流的正确句型，也不用一流的语病句型。文辞朴实，那是风格问题；文辞不通，那是扣分标准。2，熟练运用各类从句、非谓语动词，足以在英语应试写作大杀四方。请重点练习。3，多看真题范文，多抄真题范文，多欣赏自己的高分作文。4，总结适合自己的行文框架，累积拿手的句型，包括开头、结论句、主旨句、比较句型、递进句型、因果句型等。5，累积高分词汇短语，替换掉平凡词汇。譬如活用outweigh/ in terms of、people可换用individuals/ folks/ experts/ professionals、very可用exceedingly/ extremely代替、good/ bad/ many/ much/ more/ as a result的替换词、优势和劣势/好处和坏处/好和坏的替换词等。6，上述知识点的累积，以少而精为先，以活学活用为重。【关于那年我备战高考做过的10本英语笔记本】1，语法抄写笔记1本（必需，作用巨大）；2，作文笔记1本（必需，抄写历年真题范文和自选优秀范文，可以理解好文章的行文思路，这对提高写作很有帮助；并累积自己写得好的作文，总结适合自己的应试作文框架）；3，高中三年六本人教版英语课本的单元笔记4本（有一定作用，譬如短语词组等，但抄写费时且琐碎，建议精读+略读）；4，单项选择的错题本3本（建议略读，多温习；不建议抄写，收效甚微）；5，英语近义词辨析1本（不建议专门做笔记复习，对应试帮助不大，碰到时记忆一下便可）。37326 条评论分享收藏感谢收起765 条评论分享收藏感谢收起英语语法_英语语法网
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英语语法问题doubt与suspect的区别,最好能举几个例子
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你好,doubt 与 suspect 作动词用 , 都有“怀疑”的意思,但实际上它们的用法还是有区别的.一 . 如果后面接名词、代词或名词性词组时,两者基本上可通用.例如： I doubt/suspect the truth of her statement. 我对她那番话的真实性表示怀疑. He says he can cure me, but I still doubt/suspect him. 他说他能治好我的病,但我仍对他不放心.二 . 如果后面接 that 从句,意思就截然不同. doubt 意为“无把握；不相信（ question the truth of； don't believe/think ）”,怀疑其无. suspect 意为“有存在或属实的想法；相信（ have an idea of the existence； believe； guess ）”,怀疑其有.例如：I doubt that he has stolen my watch. 我不相信他偷了我的手表.I suspect that he has stolen my watch. 我怀疑 / 猜想他偷了我的手表.The doctor suspected that he was ill with flu. 医生怀疑 / 认为他得了流感.这时 doubt 更多用于否定句或疑问句中.如：I don't doubt that he is right. 我确信他是对的.I didn't doubt that he would come. 我当时相信他会来的.Why did she doubt that they were cheats? 她为什么怀疑他们是骗子?三 . doubt 用于肯定句中时,多接 whether/if 引导的从句,意义与 that 从句不同,这时意为“不敢肯定（ feel uncertain about ）”.而 suspect 不可接这种从句.例如：I doubt whether/if he'll come. 我不敢肯定他来不来.It's raining hard. I doubt whether it will be fine tomorrow. 雨下得很大,我不敢说明天会晴.四 . 其他搭配：doubt 可作不及物动词,用于 doubt of sth； suspect 用于 suspect sth to be, suspect sb of（doing） sth .例如：She never doubted of his success. 她从不怀疑他的成功.I suspected him to be the spy. 我认为他就是那个间谋.What made you suspect her of having taken the money? 你凭什么怀疑钱是她偷的?
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扫描下载二维码英语语法中常见的10个句子错误英语语法中常见的10个句子错误教育雅阳百家号我们在写英语句子的时候，常常会犯一些相同的错误。下面这十个错误后面，都附有正确答案，以及详细的解说。Incomplete Sentence - Sentence Fragment句子不完整——残缺句One common mistake many students make is the use of incomplete sentences.Each sentence in English must contain at least a subject and a verb, and should be an independent clause.Examples of incomplete sentences without a subject or a verb might include an instruction or a prepositional phrase.许多学生都会犯一个常见的错误，就是写出来的句子不完整。英语中，每个句子都必须至少有一个主语，一个动词，并单独成句。没有主语或动词的残缺句子可能就只有表示指令的句子或者介词短语了。For example:例如：Through the door.穿过大门。In the other room.在另一个房间。Over there.在那里。These are phrases we may use in spoken English, but that should not be used in written English as they are incomplete.在英语口语中，你可能会用到这些短语，但是因为它们毕竟不是完整的英语句子，所以在书面语言中，我们一般不会使用。Sentence fragments caused by dependent clauses used without an independent clause are more common. Remember that subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses. In other words, if you use a subordinating clause beginning with a word such as 'because, though, if, etc.' there must be an independent clause to complete the thought. This mistake is often made on tests asking a question with 'Why'.由于缺乏独立分句的从属子句导致的句子残缺很常见。记住，从属连词引出了从属子句。也就是说，如果你用一些词语来引出从句，例如because，though，if等等，就必须要有一个独立分句来使句子完整。我们在考试中，使用why来提出问题时，经常会犯这样的错误。For example, the sentences:例如，下面这个句子：Because Tom is the boss.因为汤姆就是老板。Since he left work early without permission. 自从他不经允许就早退。We might answer the question: "Why did he lose his job?" However, these are sentence fragments. The correct answer would be:我们可能会问：“他为什么丢掉工作？”但是，这些句子都是不完整的。正确用法应该是：He lost his job because Tom is the boss.因为汤姆就是老板，所以他丢掉了工作。He lost his job since he left work early without permission.他因为不经允许就早退而丢掉了工作。Other examples of incomplete sentences introduced by subordinating clauses include:其他关于从属子句的残缺句还包括下面内容：Even though he needs help.虽然他需要帮助If they study enough.如果他们好好学习As they had invested in the company.因为他们投资了这家公司Run-on Sentences句子不连贯Run-on sentences are sentences that:不连贯句子指的是：1) are not connected by appropriate linking language such as conjunctions缺乏合适的连接词，例如连词。2) use too many clauses rather than using periods and linking language such as conjunctive adverbs使用过多的从句，而非句号和连接语，例如连接副词The first type leaves out a word - usually a conjunction - that is required to connect a dependent and independent clause. For example:第一种是漏掉了一个词——通常是连接词——用于连接非独立子句和独立子句。The students did well on the test they didn't study very much.学生们考得很好他们没有下多少功夫。Anna needs a new car she spent the weekend visiting car dealerships.安娜想买辆新车她整个周末都在约见代理商。The first sentence should use either a conjunction 'but', or 'yet' or a subordinating conjunction 'although, even though, or though' to connect the sentence. In the second sentence, the conjunction 'so' or the subordinating conjunction 'since, as, or because' would connect the two clauses.第一句话要么应该加上一个连词but，要么加上yet，或者一个从属连词although, even though或though来连接前后两句。The students did well, yet they didn't study very much.学生们考得很好，但他们并没有下多少功夫。Anna spent the weekend visiting car dealerships since she needs a new car. 因为想买辆新车，安娜整个周末都在约见代理商。Another common run on sentence occurs when using too many clauses. This often occurs using the word 'and'.另一种句子不连贯发生在使用太多从句的时候。常常是由于and一词导致。We went to the store and bought some fruit, and we went to the mall to get some clothes, and we had lunch at McDonald's, and we visited some friends.我们去商店买了一些水果，去购物商城买了一些衣服，在麦当劳吃的午饭，又见了一些朋友。The continuous chain of clauses using 'and' should be avoided. In general, do not write sentences that contain more than three clauses to ensure that your sentences do not become run-on sentences.我们应该避免使用and来连接一大串的从句。一般来说，从句不要超过三个，以确保句子的连贯性。Duplicate Subjects两个主语Sometimes students use a pronoun as a duplicate subject.有时候，学生们会将代词作为第二个主语。Remember that each clause takes only one sentence. If you have mentioned the subject of a sentence by name, there is no need to repeat with a pronoun.记住，每个从句只需要一句话。如果之前你已经提到主语的名字，就不需要再用代词重复了。Example 1:例一：Tom lives in Los Angeles.汤姆住在洛杉矶。NOT而不是Tom, he lives in Lost Angeles.汤姆，他住在旧金山。Example 2:例二：The students come from Vietnam.学生们来自越南。NOT而不是The students they come from Vietnam.学生们他们来自越南。Incorrect Tense时态错误Tense usage is a common mistake in student writing. Make sure that the tense used corresponds to the situation. In other words, if you are speaking about something that happened in the past do not use include a tense that refers to the present. For example:时态错误在学生写作中很常见。你要确保时态与事情发生的情况一致。也就是说，如果你要表达的是发生在过去的事，就不要使用现在时态。例如：They fly to visit their parents in Toronto last week.上周他们坐飞机去看望父母。Alex bought a new car and drives it to her home in Los Angeles.亚历克斯买了一辆新车，并把它开进了洛杉矶的家。Incorrect Verb Form动词形式错误Another common mistake is the use of an incorrect verb form when combining with another verb. Certain verbs in English take the infinitive and others take the gerund (ing form).另一个常见的错误就是在与其他动词连用时，动词形式的错误。英语中的动词既有不定式形式，又有动名词形式。It's important to learn these verb combinations. Also, when using the verb as a noun, use the gerund form of the verb.学习这些动词的连用很重要。当动词作为名词使用时，就要使用动名词形式。He hopes finding a new job. / Correct -& He hopes to find a new job.他想找一个新工作。Peter avoided to invest in the project. / Correct -& Peter avoided investing in the project.皮特没有在这个项目上投资。Parallel Verb Form动词复数形式A related issue is the use of parallel verb forms when using a list of verbs. If you are writing in the present continuous tense, use the 'ing' form in your list. If you are using the present perfect, use the past participle, etc.在使用多个动词时，有一个问题就是动词复数形式的使用。如果你是在用现在进行时进行写作，就应该使用动词ing形式。如果你使用的是现在完成时，就应该使用过去分词形式。She enjoys watching TV, play tennis, and cook. / Correct -& She enjoys watching TV, playing tennis, and cooking.她喜欢看电视，打网球和烹饪。I've lived in Italy, working in Germany and study in New York. / Correct -& I've lived in Italy, worked in Germany, and studied in New York.我住在意大利，在德国工作，在纽约读书。Use of Time Clauses时间从句的使用Time clauses are introduced by the time words 'when', 'before', 'after' and so on. When speaking about the present or future use the present simple tense in time clauses. If using a past tense, we usually use the past simple in a time clause.时间从句由时间词语引导，例如when，before，after等等。当我们表达现在或将来的事时，可以使用一般现在时的时间从句。如果使用过去时态，通常会使用过去时的时间从句。We'll visit you when we will come next week. / Correct -& We'll visit you when we come next week.下周我们会来看你。She cooked dinner after he was arriving. / Correct -& She cooked dinner after he arrived. 他到了之后，她才开始煮饭。Subject - Verb Agreement主谓一致Another common mistake is to use incorrect subject - verb agreement. The most common of these mistakes is the missing 's' in the present simple tense. However, there are other types of mistakes. Always look for these mistakes in the helping verb.另一个常见的错误就是主谓不一致。最常见的就是一般现在时中漏掉了-s。但是，还有其他类型的错误。这些错误常发生在助动词的使用上。Tom play guitar in a band. / Correct -& Tom plays guitar in a band.汤姆在乐队里是弹吉他的。They was sleeping when she telephoned. / Correct -& They were sleeping when she telephoned. 他打电话过来时，他们都睡着了。Pronoun Agreement代词一致Pronoun agreement mistakes take place when using a pronoun to replace a proper noun. Often this mistake is a mistake of use of a singular form rather than a plural or vice versa. However, pronoun agreement mistakes can occur in object or possessive pronouns, as well as in subject pronouns.代词不一致发生在用代词来替代专有名词的情况下。通常是使用了单复数形式的错误使用。但是，代词不一致也会发生在宾语或物主代词，和主格代名词上。Tom works at a company in Hamburg. He loves his job. / Correct -& Tom works at a company in Hamburg. He loves his job.汤姆在汉堡一家公司工作。他热爱这份工作。Andrea and Peter studied Russian at school. He thought they were very difficult.Correct -& Andrea and Peter studied Russian at school. They thought it was very difficult. （正确）安德里亚和皮特在学校里学习了俄语。他们觉得俄语很难。Missing Commas After Linking Language连接语言后漏掉了逗号When using an introductory phrase as linking language such as a conjunctive adverb or sequencing word, use a comma after the phrase to continue the sentence.当我们使用介绍性短语，例如连接副词或表示顺序的词语，通常会在短语后面打上逗号来连接下文。本文仅代表作者观点，不代表百度立场。系作者授权百家号发表，未经许可不得转载。教育雅阳百家号最近更新：简介:教育是我们最大的事业作者最新文章相关文章语法教案周廷祥整理()Ⅰ 名
词名词可分为普通名词和专有名词。 在普通名词中个体名词和集体名词为可数名词，物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。一、名词的数可数名词有单、复数之分， 不可数名词一般没有复数形式。1．不规则名词单数变为复数的方法（1）以o结尾的词多数加es，例如：hero—heroes
potato—potatoes
tomato—tomatoes
注：下面两类只加s。1) 词尾为两个元音字母的词，例如：bamboo—bamboos studio—studios
radio—radios2) 某些外来词，例如：
photo—photos
piano—pianos
kilo—kilos(2) 部分以字母f结尾的单词只加s，例如：
roof—roofs
cliff—cliffs
chief—chiefs
belief—beliefs
gulf—gulfs
hoof—hoofs(3) 保持古英语名词复数变化形式，例如：
foot—feet(4) 保持外来语原来的变化形式，例如：phenomenon—phenomena
criterion—criteria(5) 有些名词单复数同形，例如： sheep,
works (工厂、著作)2. 合成名词的复数构成法(1) 合成名词变复数，一般将它所含的主体名词变为复数，如：
looker-on—lookers-on (旁观者)
commander-in-chief—commanders-in-chief (总司令)(2) 如果合成名词里不含名词，它的复数形式就在这合成词的词尾加s，例如：hold-all—hold-alls (旅行袋)
never-do-well—never-do-wells (不成器的人)
此外还有将所含名词全部变复数的，例如：man-servant—men-servants,
teacher—women
teachers3. 关于名词数的几点说明(1) 有些名词形式上是复数，意义上却是单数，作主语时，谓语动词要用复数。例如：
spectacles,
stockings,
tweezers注：此类词一般表示的是由两部分组成的物品，可用some修饰。单数常用a pair of修饰，复数用pairs of修饰，clothes除外。(2) 有些名词形式上是复数，实际意义上是单数，作主语时，谓语动词要有单数形式。例如：
crossroads (十字路口)(3) 有些名词只有复数形式，没有单数形式，其复数形式有时可以表示特别的意思，作主语时，谓语动词要用复数。例如：
goods (货物), effects (财物), papers (文件), looks (外貌), manners(礼貌), arms (武器), riches (财富)(4) 以s结尾的学科名称以及疾病名称，常用作单数，作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
electronics,
mathematics,
measles (麻疹), phonetics(5) 有些集合名词是单数形式，作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：police,
mankind(6) 大多数集合名词，可用作单数（指整体），也可用作复数（指集体的成员），作主语时，谓语动词视具体情况而定。例如：
government,
committee,
crew(7) 不可数名词前不能直接用数词，而应该加上表示单位的量词词组。例如：a piece of news, two cakes of soap, a sheet of paper, three pieces of chalk(8) 不可数名词表示若干类或表示数量之多，具有复数形式。例如：
steel—steels (各类钢)
snow—snows (积雪)
She told him of all her hopes and fears. (她和他谈了她的种种希望和疑虑。)(9) 有些抽象名词表示具体的东西，可以用复数形式。例如：1) When difficulties arise in one place, aids come from everywhere. (一方有难，八方支援。)
2) After many failures, they finally succeeded. (他们经历多次失败，终于取得成功。)二、名词的格名词所有格，表示所有关系，主要用于表示有生命东西的名词，一般形式是在词尾加’s来表示。1. 单数名词的所有格
单数名词的所有格一般是在单数名词后面加’s。例如：Xiao Li’s telephone number
Xiao Li’s sister’s husband’s mother2. 复数名词的所有格
以s (es) 结尾的复数名词后，只加’，例如：the teachers’ reading-room
the workers’ club3. 表示无生命东西的名词也可用所有格(1) 用在表示时间、距离、重量或货币单位的名词上，例如：an hour’s walk
a stone’s throw (一箭之远)
a pound’s weight(2) 用在表示太阳、月亮、地球、船只、国家、城市、地方等的名词上，例如：
the sun’s rays
the ship’s cabin
the earth’s surface(3) 在某些习惯用语中，例如：to one’s heart’s content (尽情)
at one’s wit’s end (智穷才竭)4．所有格后的名词可省略(1) 所有格所修饰的名词，如果前面已经提到过，为避免重复，可以省略。例如：
This is a dictionary of mine, not comrade Li’s.(2) 名词所有格用以指店铺或某人的家时，其后的名词常常省略而不用。例如：
a fruiterer’s (一家水果店)
the Liu’s (刘家)5．关于名词词组的所有格(1) 如果两人共有的东西或共同创建的事业，把两人视为整体，在最后一个名词的后面加’s; 如果不是共有的，则须分别加’s。例如：Tom and Mary’s new invention (汤姆和玛丽的新发明)John’s and Dick’s mothers (约翰的母亲和迪克的母亲)(2) 有时词组的最后一个词不是名词，但此词组是不可分割的，则’s加在最后一个词上。例如：
somebody else’s book
an hour or two’s time(3) 如有同位语，’s则加在表示同位语的词上。例如：before his classmate Wang Ling’s arrival6. 一般用of短语表示无生命的名词的所有关系例如：the door of the classroom
the title of the song7. 表示有生命的名词的所有关系是否用of短语视情况而定(1) 名词前有不定冠词或代词修饰，用of短语表示所有关系。例如：a poem of Tom
these advantages of Wang Lan(2) 名词较长，为保持平衡，用of短语表示所有关系。例如：the works of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin(3) 名词有定语或从句修饰，用of短语表示所有关系。例如：1）Do you know the name of the girl working there?2）He is the father or the girl whom we met last night.8. 名词的双重所有格“of +名词所有格或名词性物主代词”称为双重所有格。它通常用在所修饰的名词前有表示数量的词（a, two, some, any, no, many, a few 等）或有指示代词的情况下，用以表达部分观念或某种感情色彩。例如：1）He is a friend of my father’s.
2）There is no fault of his.3）That performance of the student’s was wonderful.
类似的结构还有of one’s own。例如：
We wish we had a house of our own.三、名词用作形容词1．一个名词修饰另一个名词（1）第一个名词说明第二个名词的来源、出处、使用或发生的地点和时间。例如： a traffic jam
a newspaper article
the office party
afternoon tea
a night school
注：当谈到具体的时间时要用’s所有格，例如：
today’s newspaper
tomorrow’s weather(2) 第一个名词说明第二个名词是由什么组成的。例如：
an iron bridge
a two-room flat
a puzzle book (一本难题集)(3) 第一个名词说明第二个名词是干什么的，在什么情况下起作用或与什么有关系（有时两个名词构成一个合成词）。例如： a book-case
a police station
holiday plans
a war story (一个描写战争的故事)(4) 第二个名词提到的是一项活动，第一个名词是活动中的承受者（即直接宾语）。例如：
adult education
an animal trainer (驯兽师)(5) 第二个名词涉及第一个名词的一部分。例如：the car door
the river bank
the table leg注：1）此种情况也可用of短语，例如：
the door of the car
the leg of the table2）一般情况下，如果第一个名词是有生命的，我们用’s所有格来表示这种概念。例如：
a man’s leg
a boy’s arm
a cow’s horn2. 名词连缀用作形容词两个、三个或更多的名词都可以作为形容词来用，这种结构常见于报纸标题里。例如：1）road accident research center (交通事故研究中心)2）oil production costs (石油生产的成本)3．名词作形容词时数的变化(1) 名词作形容词时，一般都是用单数形式，即使意思是复数，通常也用单数形式。例如：
a ticket office
a shoe shop
trouser pockets
注：有一些例外.sports, accounts, arms, customs和clothes用作形容词时没什么变化。例如：
a sports meeting
a customs officer
a clothes shop
arms production(2) 以–ics结尾的单数名词用作形容词没有任何变化。例如：a physics teacher
an economics degree(3) 带有数字的名词词组作形容词时，名词也用单数形式。例如：a two-day holiday
a five-mile walk
two-pound chickenⅡ 代
词代词可分为九类：人称代词、物主代词、反身代词、相互代词、指示代词、疑问代词、关系代词、连接代词、不定代词。本节主要讨论在四级考试中常出现的考点。一、人称代词1．人称代词的主要用途是用来代替名词在复合句的从句中或在介词短语中，常用代词来代替句中相应的名词。例如：1）China will always do what she has promised to do.2）In his songs, Nieh Erh aroused the patriotic feelings of the people.2．人称代词作表语用宾格人称代词作表语时，用宾格较多，特别是在口语中。例如：1）“Who’s there?” “It’s me.”
2）I wouldn’t do that if I were her.3．人称代词在强调句式中的格在强调句式中强调主语常用代词的主格，强调宾语用宾格。例如：1）It was we boys who are to give orders.
2）It is her that we are talking about.4．we和us可以包括或者排除听话的人例1：Shall we go and have a drink? (we包括听话的人)
例2：We’re going for a drink. Would you like to come with us? (we排除听话的人)例3：Let us go for a walk, shall we? (us包括听话的人)例4：Let’s go for a walk, will you? (us排除听话的人)二、物主代词物主代词是表示所有关系的，有形容词型和名词型两种。关于物主代词应注意以下两点：(1) 物主代词不能和别的限定词（如冠词或指示代词）同时使用。例如：不能说a my friend, the my uncle 或the mine。(2) 在谈到打击、疼痛以及其他类似情况时，常用the代替物主代词，与表示身体某部分的名称连用。例如：1）The tomato hit him in the nose.
2）She had a pain in the shoulder.3）We took my sister by the arm.
4）She looked me in the face.5）He was badly wounded in the leg.三、反身代词1．反身代词作同位语时的位置反身代词作同位语时，不一定紧跟在主导词后，可以放到句末，强调的意味最强。例如：
The manager spoke to me himself. (经理自己亲口对我说的。)2．介词后面可用普通人称代词代替在所指明显的情况下，介词后面可以用普通人称代词来代替反身代词。例如：(1) She took her dog with her.
(2) She looks after her.3．反身代词不能作定词反身代词不能作定语，可以用形容词性物主代词+own来表示这个意思。例如：
I’d like to have my own house.4．反身代词还可以用于某些成语(1) (all) by oneself自己干的（不要别人帮忙）。例如：They did the experiment all by themselves.(2) of oneself自动地。例如：
The enemy will not perish of himself.(3) for oneself替（给）自己。例如：
You have a right to decide for yourself.(4) in oneself本性，本身。例如：
This is a good idea in itself.(5) to oneself独自享用。例如：When one dines in a restaurant one likes a table to oneself.(6) between ourselves私下说的话。例如：All this is between ourselves.(7) among themselves他们之间。例如：They had a heated discussion among themselves.四、相互代词相互代词是表示相互关系的一种代词，有each other和one another。Each other指两者之间的相互关系，one another指两者以上的人与事物之间的相互关系。例如：1）Tom and Mary frequently exchange gift with each other.2）When science, business, and art learn something of one another’s methods and goals, the world will have come closer to cultural harmony. (当科学、商业和艺术互相对彼此的方式和目的都有所了解时，世界就会变得更为协调一致。)3）All the students in our class always care for each other.4）We should point out one another’s/each other’s short-comings.注：each other和one another有所有格形式：each other’s, one another’s, 用作定语。
Each other可拆开用。例如：Each helps the other. (互相帮助。)五、指示代词主要有this, that, these, those以及such, same.1．指示代词this, these和that, those(1) this, these指较近的人或物、较近的时间，以及在说话的时刻说话者自己介入的场合，that, those则相反。例如：
1）Things are quite different in these days.2）I prefer this to that. (我喜欢这个，不喜欢那个。)(2) 有时英语在前一句中提到两种事物，在后一句中就用this, these指后者，用that, those指前者。例如：
There are two classes of people: the selfish and the selfless. These are found in the working class, while those in the capitalists.(3) this, these常指下文将谈及的事物，而that, those常指上文所说的事物；this, these为近指，that, those为远指。例如：1）This is what he said. (以下是他所说的。) 2）That is what he said. (这是他所说的。)3）Work and play are both this gives us rest, and that gives us energy. (工作和游戏对健康都是必须的；游戏给我们休息，工作给我们活力。)(4) that, those常用来代替已说及的事物，以避免重复。例如：The bikes produced in Shanghai are better than those produced here.(1) such和same作指示代词，单复数同行。在句中可作主语、定语、表语、宾语等。例如：
1）It is such a wonderful film.
2）Our views are the same.(2) same常与the连用。例如：
I wish you the same.六、不定代词易混淆的常用不定代词有：some, each, none, other, both, either, both, one, ones。1．some和any(1) some一般用在肯定句中，any一般用在否定句和疑问句中。例如：1）Have you any questions?
2）I have some questions.(2) any用在肯定句中，意思是“任何的”。例如： Any help you can give will bevaluable.(3) 在带有定语从句的句子里，any后面一般跟that,而不跟which或who。例如：
Borrow any book that interests you.(4) any,,but的意思是“除了,,以外的任何一个”。例如：I’ll go to any theatre but that one.(5) 在疑问句中表示劝导、拜托而期待肯定的回答时可以用some。例如：1）May I give you some tea? (你喝茶吗？)2）Will you buy me some books? (请给我买几本书好吗？)(6) 在否定句中，some本身的含义是肯定的。例如：He never writes without making some mistakes. (他每写什么总是有些错误。)(7) some还可用来修饰可数名词单数，表示不确定的“某一”。例如：You will realize it some day. (总有一天你会明白的。)(8) some和可数名词连用，表示“大约”。例如：It happened some twenty years ago.2．each和every(1) each表示个别的概念，着重于同类的个别性，every着重同类的共同性。例如：1）Each of them had something to say.
2）Every player was on top form.(2) every只能作定语，each则可作主语、宾语、定语、同位语。例如：1）Each man must do his best.
2）Each must do his best.(3) 当each后出现另外一个限定词时，要用each of, 后面接复数可数名词。例如：
Each of my aunts gave me socks for Christmas.(4) 在下列习惯语中不能用each代替every。例如：1）You have every right to say so. (你完全有权利这么说。)2）There is every reason to think so. (那样考虑是大有原因的。)3．none和no(1) none (指人或物)是与all相对的，可作主语、宾语等。它指可数名词时，动词可用单数也可用复数。例如：1）None has escaped the net.
2）None are so deaf as those that will not hear.(2) 在the, my, you, this, that等词前面，应该用none of。例如：1）None of my friends live near here.
2）I like none of that music.3）None of them came in time.(3) none与复合不定代词no one的比较：no one与none都作“没有人”解，但略有区别。None往往有一固定范围，如none of them, none of the students, 而no one没有这种限制。例如：1）“Did any of my classmates come to see me?” “None.”2）“Did any one come to see me?” “No one.”(4) no是形容词性的代词，只能作定语。例如：No cigarette is completely harmless.(5) no修饰作表语的名词，有时有特殊含义。例如： He is no poet. (他算不上诗人。)(6) no和一个名词连用，其意思是not a或者not any。例如：1）She had no idea what I meant.2）I’ve received no letters these days. (= I’ve not received any letters these days.)4．other和another(1) other的含义是与“某一个”或“某一些”相对的“另一个”或“另一些”。other的复数形式是others, 所有格形式是other’s或others’。可作定语、宾语、表语，特指时前面要加冠词the。例如：1）I don’t like this one, give me the other, please. (我不喜欢这个，请给我那个。)2）There are other ways of doing this exercise.3）She thinks only of other’s good.4）“Four of them are in the classroom..” ―What about the others?‖ (特指)5）She has more concern for others than for herself. (泛指)(2) another的含义是与“某一个”不同的“另一个”、“又一个”。another的前面不能加冠词，可作主语、宾语、定语。例如：One is old, another is young and the third is of middle age.(3) another后一般用单数名词，如可以说another day,不能说another days。但another后面可以跟few或带数字的复数名词。例如：1）I’ve got another three-day holiday.2）There’s room for another few people in the back of the bus.(4) the other起限定性的单数代词的作用，表示两个中的另一个；another是非限定的，表示多个中的另一个。例如：1）Take the other book, not this one. (两本书) 2）Take another book, not this one. (不止两本书)注：表示特指时单数用the other,复数用the other (ones) (作定语)或the others (作主语、宾语)。表示泛指时单数用another, 复数用other (ones) (作定语) 或others (作主语、宾语)。例如：1）Where are the other books? (特指)2）S the others are mine. (特指)3）There are other ways of doing that experiment? (泛指)4）Some metals are magnetic and others aren’t. (泛指)5．both, either和neither(1) both (两个都)，either (两个中的任何一个)，neither (两个中任何一个都不)，可以作主语、宾语、定语。both还可作同位语。例如：1) Both are correct.
2) Neither is correct.
3) Either of them is correct.4) I’ll take them both with me.(2) either有时指“两者都”（= each of two），主要用于on either side, at either end等习惯用语中。例如：
There are houses on either side of the road.(3) 当either of 后面接名词词组时，名词前须用限定词（人称代词、指示代词或冠词），谓语动词一般用单数。例如：Either of the children is quite capable of looking after the baby.(4) both的反义词是neither。例如：1）Both of us want to go.
2）Neither of us want to go.6. both和all(1) both只能概括两个人或物，all则概括两个以上数目的人或物。例如：1）Both countries are socialist countries.
2）All children like ice-cream.(2) both和all作同位语时，放在该名词或代词之后。例如：They both went to Beijing.(3) both和all一般放在be动词的后面，行为动词的前面；谓语中有助动词时，则置于助动词后。例如：1）We are both fond of music.
2）They all study very hard.3）They have both gone to Shanghai.(4) both和all都可用of结构，后面是名词时，of可省略，但若后面是人称代词时，of不能省。例如：1）All (of) my friends like riding.
2）All of them enjoyed the party.(5) 如动词是否定的，一般不用all作主语，而往往以not all作主语。例如：
Not all birds can fly.(6) all用于表示“全体”时，谓语动词用单数。例如：All that I own is yours.7. one和ones(1) one用来代替单数可数名词，ones用来代替复数可数名词，以避免重复。例如：1）I’m looking for a flat. I’d like one with a garden.2）The new designs are much better than the old ones.注：one或ones用于代替同一名称的另一件或另一些东西。It或they则代替同一名称的同样一件或一些东西。例如：1) ―Have you found the pen lost yesterday?‖ ―Yes, I have found it.‖2) ―Is this your pen?‖ ―No, it isn’t. Mine is the one on the desk.‖(2) 通常不说my one (s), your one (s)等，而说mine, yours等。但如果one (s)前有形容词，就可以和物主代词连用，也常与冠词连用。例如：1）Your car isn’t fast enough. Let’s take mine.
2）Let’s take your new one.3）I’d like a big one with cream on.(3) 在形容词最高级以及this, that, either, neither等限定词后面，one (s)可省略，而these和those后面基本不用ones。例如：1）I think my dog is the fastest (one).
2）Either (one) will suit me.(4) 在数词后面，只有用了形容词才能用ones。例如：
I caught nine big ones. Ⅲ 形容词和副词一、形容词和副词的比较等级1．比较结构的基本形式形容词和副词的比较主要是通过as,,as和more than结构表现出来。例如：1）John is more/less stupid than Bob (is).2）George is as efficient a worker as Jack (is).3）He behaves more/less politely than Tom (does).4）He works as hard as his father (does).只有在进行不同性质的比较时，比较分句才以完整的句子形式出现。例如：
He is as brave as he is quick-witted.(2) 比较结构之前可以用程度状语加以修饰。如as,,as结构前可以用almost, nearly, just (about), quite或表示倍数的词语修饰。例如：1）This week has been almost as rainy as last week.2）Brick houses are nearly as common as wood houses.3）Petrol is twice as expensive as it was a few years ago.4）My command of English is not half so (as) good as yours.(3) more than结构之前可以用 (so) very much, (quite) a lot, a great deal, (just)a bit, still, far, somewhat, still, far或表示倍数的词语修饰。例如：1）This job is so much harder than my last one that I’ve decidedwww.wenku1.com to quit.2）Milk is a lot more nutritious than beer.3）The new method was over ten times more efficient than the traditional one.4）Our income was 43.5 per cent greater than in 1996.2. 比较结构中名词的位置当比较结构与名词搭配时，名词可能有三种位置：(1) 可以将名词置于比较结构中间，也可将比较结构作后置修饰语置于名词之后。如as,,as结构或more than结构与单数可数名词或不可数名词搭配：1）I can’t drink as a sweet coffee as this.2）I can’t drink coffee as sweet as this.(2) 当比较结构中的more, less等词为限定词时，或者当as many,,as与复数可数名词搭配以及as much,,as与不可数名词搭配时，或者当as much of a,,as, more/less of a,,than等结构与单数可数名词搭配时，名词只能置于比较结构中间。例如：1）There is much less difficulty than I thought.2）He is more of a sportsman than his brother.as many as和as much as也能单独使用，这时many是代词，much或是代词或是副词。例如：
1）I ate as much as I could.2）He didn’t catch as many as he’d hoped.(3) 当as,,as结构与复数可数名词搭配以及more than结构与不同类别的单复数可数名词搭配，或者受其他修饰语的限制时，这类比较结构通常置于所修饰的名词之后。例如：1）He smokes cigarettes as expensive as he can afford.2）Here are men more intelligent than Mary.3．几个比较结构的用法区别(1) more than结构的不同用法与意义：在一般用法中，比较级可以采用在形容词或副词前加more的形式，也可以采取形容词或副词（单音节词和少数双音节词）加词尾er的形式。当more,,than作“与其,,不如,,”解释时，比较级只能用加more的形式，不能用加词尾er的形式。 这种用法也适用于less,,than（不,,而是,,）结构。例如：1）He is more good than bad.2）He was less hurt than frightened. (他受的伤不重，而是被吓得厉害。)(2) not so,,as与not so much,,as的用法比较。试看下面两例：1）London isn’t so large as Tokyo.2）It wasn’t so much his appearance I liked as his personality.(3) not或no与more than的连用比较。试看以下两例：1）John is not better than Tom.2）John is no better than Tom.前一例是一般的比较结构，后一例就不同了，no better than相当于as bad as, 含义是两人一样坏。这里“no +形容词”或“副词比较级+ than”所表示的可以说是该形容词或副词的相反含义。又如：
no richer than = as poor as
no bigger than = as small as
在某些结构中，单独使用more than也能表示否定概念。例如：
That is more than I can tell.
此时含义是“简直不,,”。又如：
My trip to Beijing is more than sightseeing.
此时含义是“不仅仅是游览观光”。4．有比较含义的形容词的固定搭配在英语中，有些形容词本身就含有比较含义，有着自己的固定搭配，其后接介词to，不能接than，这类形容词有junior, senior, inferior, superior, anterior, posterior等。例如：
1）In some ways, train travel is superior to air travel.
2）He is intellectually inferior to his brother.5．形容词的比较级句型举例(1) more and more (越来越,,)。例如：1）It’s becoming more and more difficult to find a job.2）These days more and more people are learning English.(2) the more,,the more (越是,,就越)。例如：1）The more they talked, the more encouraged they felt.2）The busier he is, the happier he feels.(3) more or less (大体上，或多或少)。例如：1）The question is more or less settled.2）We’ve succeeded in the first stage, more or less.(4) more (less) than (不止，不到)。例如：1）It’s more than ten years since we parted.2）They raised yields from less than 400 tons to more than 800 tons.6．形容词最高级的用法要点(1) 形容词的最高级在使用时，前面通常要加定冠词，并有一个短语或从句表示在哪个范围内情况如此。例如：1）The Yangtze is the biggest river in our country.2）That was the most delicious meal I’ve ever had.有时在形容词最高级前可以有一个状语或定语。例如：1）She is by far the most active member in our group.2）It’s becoming the third largest industrial city in the province.(2) 形容词最高级有时表示“非常,,”的意思，这时前面可加不定冠词或不加冠词。例如：
1）It is a most (= very) touching story.
2）The book you lent me was most interesting (= very interesting).(3) 如果形容词最高级前有物主代词，就不需再加定冠词了。例如：1）Tuesday is our busiest day.
2）Fishing is his latest hobby.形容词最高级还可用于at one’s,,这种短语中。例如：1）The peony was at its best. (牡丹花开得正盛。)2）I knew her tone, I knew she was at her worst. (我听得出她的语气，知道她这时候心情最不好。)二、形容词和副词的位置1．形容词在句中的位置(1) 如果同时有几个形容词出现在名词中心词之前，一般是较长的形容词置于最后。例如：
It was a rainy, windy, unpleasant day.(2) 当名词中心词之前出现几个形容词作修饰语时，一般按下列词序排列：限定词→描绘形容词→表示大小、新旧的形容词→表示颜色的形容词→表示类别的形容词→表示类别的名词（作修饰语）→名词中心词；如果出现一个以上的限定词，通常是表示特指或泛指的限定词在前，表示数量的限定词在后。例如：the English churchthe old English churchthe charming English churchthe town’s charming English churchthe man’s first two interesting little red French oil paintings(3) 形容词也能作后置修饰语，如在由some, any, no等构成的合成词之后。另外，当形容词本身带有不定式、介词词组等构成形容词词组的组成部分时，通常置于被修饰的名词中心词之后。例如：1）Students brave enough to take the course deserve to succeed.2）He is a man deserving of sympathy.(4) 也有在形容词词组中将形容词与其他成分拆开的情况，即将形容词置于名词中心词之前，而将形容词词组的其余部分置于名词中心词之后。这主要见于形容词词组中心词为different, similar, easy, difficult, impossible时，或者形容词为比较级或最高级形式时。例如：a different book from this one
a difficult problem to solvethe best summering place in the world(5) 凡能作后置修饰语的形容词或形容词词组，其含义往往相当于一个关系分句。例如：
the members present = the members who are presentanything interesting = anything that is interesting(6) 在下列结构中，形容词必须与其所修饰的名词中心词拆开，移至不定冠词之前。例如：1）It was as pleasant a day as I have ever spent.2）It was so warm a day that we decided to go to the sea.3）She is too kind a girl to refuse.(7) 当enough作为名词修饰词时，既可置于名词中心词之前，又可置于其后。但当它用来修饰形容词或副词时，只能置于中心词之后。例如：1）There is enough food for all the people here.2）There is food enough for all the people here.3）He is old enough to make decisions by himself.2. 副词在句中的位置(1) 副词大都可放在动词后面，如果修饰及物动词，一般放在宾语后面。例如：1）I remember having seen him somewhere.
2）She didn’t do it intentionally.3）You shouldn’t stay up too late.(2) 频度副词通常放在动词前面，但若句子里有情态动词、助动词或动词to be, 就放在这类动词（第一个）的后面。例如：1）He sometimes goes there on business.2）I hardly ever heard him singing.3）You must always bear this in mind.4）She is seldom ill.(3) 还有一些副词，如already, (not) yet, once, nearly, almost, just, really, suddenly, certainly, still, soon, surely等用法同（2）。例如：1）I almost forgot about the whole thing.
2）She suddenly fell ill.3）You must really be careful.
4）This is the telegram we’ve just received.(4) 疑问副词、连接副词、关系副词和一些说明整个句子的副词（例如actually, fortunately, unfortunately, evidently, accordingly, of course, first, at first, secondly, perhaps, probably, certainly, surely, originally, maybe等），通常都放在句子（或从句）的开头。例如：1）Actually I still remember the day when we first met.
2）Maybe you’re right.3）Certainly we should try our best to help them.
4）First we must get the farm tools ready.(5) 有时为了对动作发生的时间更强调一些，有些时间副词如yesterday, tomorrow, last night, up to now, just now, finally, at last, now, soon, once, occasionally, usually, sometimes等，也可放在句首。例如：1）Usually we don’t go out in such weather.
2）Soon you will regret it.(6) 程度副词一般都放在它所修饰的词前面。例如：1）This textbook is definitely more suitable for us than the other one.2）I don’t quite agree with you.(7) 有少数副词在句子里位置很灵活，常放在与它关系最密切的词前，如only, even, perhaps, exactly, soon, still等。这些副词位置的改变，在句子的意思上并不引起多大的变化。例如：
Perhaps you are right. = You are perhaps right. = You are right perhaps.动词的时态英语共有16种时态，根据近几年曝光的四、六级考卷分析， 时态测试重点主要有：完成时态——现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时；进行时态——现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、完成进行时；一般时态。一、一般时态1、一般现在时(1)一般现在时表示没有时限的持久存在的动作或状态或现阶段反复发生的动作或状态，常和副词 usually，often，always sometimes， regularly，near，occasionally，every year, every week 等连用。例如：1）The moon moves round the earth..2）Mr. Smith travels to work by bus every day.（2）在由after，until，before，once，when，even if，in case，as long as，as soon as，the moment 以及 if，unless 等引导的时间状语从句或条件状语从句中，通常用一般现在时代替将来时。例如：1）I will tell him the news as soon as I see him.2）I will not go to countryside if it rains tomorrow.（3）某些表示起始的动词，可用一般现在时表示按规定、计划或安排要发生的动作，这类动词有：be，go，come，start，depart，arrive，begin，leave 等。例如：1）The plane leaves at three sharp.2）The new teachers arrive tomorrow.（4）在由why，what，where，whoever，who，that，as 等引导的从句中，也常用一般现在时代替将来时。例如：1）Free tickets will be given to whoever comes first.2）You’ll probably be in the same train as I am tomorrow.2．一般过去时（1）表示过去某一特定时间所发生的、可完成的动作或状态，常与表示确切过去时间的词、短语或从句连用。例如：We went to the pictures last night and saw a very interesting film.（2）表示过去习惯性动作。例如：1）He always went to class last.2）I used to do my homework in the library.（注意与be used to doing短语的区别）3．一般将来时1）表示将来打算进行或期待发生的动作或状态。例如：I shall graduate next year.2）几种替代形式：1）be going to +v在口语中广泛使用，表示准备做或将发生的事情。例如： I’m going to buy a house when we’ve saved enough money.2）be to +v表示计划安排要做的事，具有“必要”的强制性意义。例如：I am to play tennis this afternoon.3）be about to +v表示即将发生的事情。例如：He was about to start.4）be due to +v表示预先确定了的事， 必定发生的事。例如：The train is due to depart in ten minutes.5）be on the point/verge of +v – ing 强调即将发生的某种事态。例如：
The baby was on the point of crying when her mother finally came home.二、进行时态1．现在进行时（1）表示现在正在进行的动作，常与now，right now，at the mother，for the time being，for the present等连用。例如：Don’t disturb her. She is reading a newspaper now.（2）表示现阶段经常发生的动作， 常与always，continually，forever，constantly等连用。例如：My father is forever criticizing me.（3）表示根据计划或安排在最近要进行的事情。具有这种语法功能的动词仅限于过渡性动词。即表示从一个状态或位置转移到另一个状态或位置上去的动词。常用的有：go，come，leave，start，arrive，return等。例如：They are leaving for Hong Kong next month.（4）有些动词不能用进行时，这是一类表示“感觉，感情，存在，从属”等的动词。如：see，hear，smell，taste，feel，notice，look，appear，（表示感觉的词）；hate，love，fear，like，want，wish，prefer，refuse，forgive（表示感情的动词）；be，exist，remain，stay，obtain（表示存在状态的动词）；have，possess，own，contain，belong，consist of，form（表示占有与从属的动词）；understand，know，believe，think，doubt，forget，remember（表示思考理解的动词）。但是如果它们词义改变，便也可用进行时态。例如：1）Tom looks pale. What’s wrong with him?（look 在此为联系动词，意为“显得，看上去”）2）Tom is looking for his books.（look 在此为实义动词，意为“寻找”）2． 过去进行时过去进行时表示一个过去的动作发生时或发生后，另一个过去的动作正在进行，或表示过去反复的习惯，常与always，continually，constantly等动词连用。例如：1）We were discussing the matter when the headmaster entered.2）Whenever I visited him, he was always writing at the desk.3． 将来进行时将来进行时主要表示将来某一时刻正在进行的动作，或表示要在将来某一时刻开始，并继续下去的动作。常用来表示礼貌的询问、请求等。例如：1）This time next day they will be sitting in the cinema.2）What will you be doing at six tomorrow evening?4． 完成进行时（现在、过去、将来）完成进行时是（现在、过去、将来）完成时的强调形式，将放在完成时态部分讲述。三、完成时态完成时态通常表示已完成或从事的动作。它可分为：1． 现在完成时（1）现在完成时用来表示对目前状况仍有影响的，刚刚完成的动作（常与yet，already，just连用），或者过去某一时刻发生的，持续到现在的情况（常与for，since连用）。例如：1）I have just finished my homework.2）Mary has been ill for three days.（2）常与现在完成时连用的时间状语有：since, for, during, over等引导出的短语；副词already, yet, just, ever, now, before, often, lately, recently等；状语词组this week (morning, month, year), so far, up to now, many times, up to the present等。例如：1）I haven’t been there for five years.2）So far, she hasn’t enjoyed the summer vacation.3）There have been a lot of changes since 1978.（3）完成时态可用在下列结构中：This (That, It) is (was) the first (second,,) time +定语从句；This (That, It) is (was) the only (last) + n +定语从句；This (That, It) is (was) +形容词最高级+ n +定语从句。如果主句的谓语动词是一般现在时，从句的谓语动词通常用现在完成时；如果主句谓语动词是一般过去时，从句谓语动词通常用过去完成时。例如：（1）This is one of the rarest questions that have ever been raised at such a meeting.（2）There was a knock at the door. It was the second time someone had interrupted me that evening.2． 过去完成时（1）表示过去某时间前已经发生的动作或情况，这个过去的时间可以用by，before等介词短语或一个时间状语从句来表示；或者表示一个动作在另一个过去动作之前已经完成。例如：1）We had just had our breakfast when Tom came in.2）By the end of last year they had turned out 5, 000 bicycles.（2）动词expect, hope, mean, intend, plan, suppose, wish, want, desire等用过去完成时，表示过去的希望、预期、意图或愿望等没有实现。例如：I had meant to take a good holiday this year, but I wasn’t able to get away.
另外两种表示“过去想做而未做的事”的表达方式是：1）was / were + to have done sth, 例如：We were to have come yesterday, but we couldn’t.2）intended (expected, hope, meant, planned, supposed, wished, wanted, desired) + to have done sth, 例如：I meant to have told you about it, but I forgot to do so.（3）过去完成时常用于以下固定句型：1）hardly, scarcely, barely + 过去完成时+ when + 过去时。例如：Hardly had I got on the bus when it started to move.2）no sooner +过去完成时+ than +过去时。例如：No sooner had I gone out than he came to see me.3）by (the end of ) +过去时间，主句中谓语动词用过去完成时。例如：The experiment had been finished by 4 o’clock yesterday afternoon.3． 将来完成时将来完成时表示在将来某一时刻将完成或在另一个未来的动作发生之前已经完成的动作；也可以用来表示一种猜测。常与将来完成时连用的时间状语有：by (the time / the end of ) + 表示将来时间的短语和句子；before (the end of ) + 表示将来时间的词语或句子；when, after等加上表示将来动作的句子等。例如：1）By this time tomorrow you will have arrived in Shanghai.2）I shall have finished this composition before 9 o’clock.3）When we get on the railway station, the train will probably have left.4． 完成进行时完成进行时是完成时的强调形式，有现在完成进行时，过去完成进行时，将来完成进行时。（1）现在完成进行时表示过去某一时刻之前开始的动作或状态一直延续到过去某一时刻。例如：
I have been looking for my lost book for three days, but I still haven’t found it.（2）过去完成进行时表示过去某一时刻之前开始的动作或状态一直延续到过去某一时刻。例如：
It had been raining cats and dogs for over a week and the downpour had caused landslides in many places.（3）将来完成进行时表示在将来某一时刻之前开始的一个动作或状态一直延续到将来某一时刻。例如：
By the time you arrive tonight, she will have been typing for hours.四、时态一致时态一致是英语四、六级考试的一个重要内容。通常应由主句谓语的时态决定从句的谓语时态。一般原则是：1、当主句谓语使用现在时或将来时，从句的谓语根据具体情况使用任何时态He says that he lives in Wuhan.
We hope that there will be many people at your party today.
―Did you hear that Bill finally sold the house?‖ ―Yes, but I don’t know who bought it.‖
―There’s a lot of excitement on the street.‖
―There certainly is. Do you suppose the astronauts have returned?‖2、当主句谓语使用过去时的时候，从句的谓语必须使用过去范围的时态He said he was writing a novel.
The teacher wanted to know when we would finish the experiment.
He said his father had been an engineer.3、当从句是表示没有时间概念的真理时，从句的谓语应使用一般现在时。例如：The teacher told them since light travels faster than sound, lightning appears to go before thunder.注：在此种情况下，即使主句谓语用了过去式的各种时态，从句谓语也应用一般现在时。4、从句谓语只能用虚拟语气的情况利用时态一致原则确定从句动词时态时，还应注意，若主语动词是表示命令、请求、要求、建议、劝告等的动词，从句谓语只能用虚拟语气，不能遵循时态一致原则。例如：
We insisted that we do it ourselves.动词的语态语态也是动词的一种形式，英语有两种语态：主动语态和被动语态。主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者，而被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者。1）We use electricity to run machines.
（主动语态）2）Electricity is used to run machines.
（被动语态）1． 不能用于被动语态的动词和短语（1）在英语中，不及物动词不能用于被动语态，但有些不及物动词（包括短语）容易引起误用。如：appear, belong, belong, die, escape, fall, happen, last, remain, succeed, occur, come true, take place, consist of。（2）某些表示状态或特征的及物动词，如：become, contain, cost, fit, have, resemble, suit也没有被动语态。2． 被动语态的时态形式常用的被动语态有表1 所列的几种时态形式。表1时间
完成时现在
am being askedis asked
is being askedare asked
are being asked过去was be asked
was being askedwere be asked
were being asked将来
shall be asked
shall have been askedwill be asked
will have been asked过去
should be asked
should have been asked将来
would be asked
would have been asked3． 短语动词的被动语态短语动词转换为被动语态时，通常被看作是一个动词，后面的介词或副词不能拆开或省略。例如：1）So far no correct conclusion has arrived at.2）All the rubbish should be got rid of.4．“get + -ed分词”的被动语态“get + -ed分词”结构强调动作的结果，而非动作本身，常用来表示突发性的，出乎意料的偶然事件。例如：The boy got hurt on his way home from work.另外，“get + -ed分词”还可用于谈论为自己做的事，是主动的行为而不是被动的行为。例如：get dressed（穿衣服）
get divorced（离婚）
get engaged（订婚）
get confused（迷惑不解）
get lost（迷路） get washed（洗脸）
get married（结婚）5． 能带两个宾语和复合宾语的动词改为被动语态（1） 能带两个宾语的动词改为被动语态时，一次只能由一个宾语作主语，另一个宾语被保留下来。例如：
1）We showed the visitors our new products.（主动语态）2）The visitors were shown our new products.（被动语态）
3）Our new products were shown to the visitors.（被动语态）（2）能带复合宾语的动词改为被动语态时，原来的宾语补足语变为主语补足语。例如：1）The teacher appointed him League secretary.（主动语态）2）He was appointed League secretary.（被动语态）6． 被动语态与系表结构的区别（1）The novel was well written.（系表结构）（2）The novel was written by Diskens.（被动语态）7． 少数动词的主动语态有时有被动的意思例1：The book is selling remarkably well.例2：The song sounds very beautiful.能这样用的动词还有read（读起来），clean（擦起来），wash（洗起来），write（写起来）。例3：My watch needs cleaning. (= My watch needs to be cleaned).能像need这样用的动词还有：want, require, deserve, do, owe, bind等。
例4：The meat is cooking.例 5：The book written by the professor is printing.情态动词 (Model Verbs) 又称为情态助动词 (Model Auxil-iaries)。英语中助动词主要有两类：一是基本助动词，如have, do, be；二是情态助动词，如may, must, need等。情态动词与其他动词连用表示说话人的语气。情态动词可表达建议、要求、可能和意愿等。情态动词没有人称和数的变化。在大学英语四、六级考试中，情态动词部分重点测试以下内容：（1）情态动词+行为动词完成式
（2）情态动词+行为动词进行式（3）情态动词+行为动词完成进行式
（4）某些情态动词的特殊用法一、情态动词+行为动词完成式情态动词+行为动词完成式即“情态动词+ have + v-ed分词”，表示对过去行为或动作进行推测、评论或判断。1. must have v-edmust have v-ed 表示推测过去某事“一定”发生了。其否定形式为：can’t / couldn’t have v-ed, 表示过去不可能发生某事。例如：1）Since the ditch is full of water, it must have rained last night.2）You couldn’t have met my grandmother. She died before you were born.2. could have v-edcould have v-ed 表示推测过去某动作“很可能”发生了。例如：1）―The dictionary has disappeared. Who could have taken it?‖2）―Tom could have taken it. He was alone yesterday.‖3.may / might have v-edmay / might have v-ed 表示推测过去某事“也许”发生了.may 比 might 表示的可能性在说话人看来稍大些。例如：I can’t find my keys. I may / might have left them at the school yesterday.4. ought to / should have v-ed 和 ought not to / shouldn’t have v-edought to / should have v-ed 和 ought not to / shouldn’t have v-ed 用于对已发生的情况表示“责备”、“不满”，分别表示“本应该,,”和“本不应该,,”。例如：1）With all the work finished, I should have gone to the party last night.2）You ought not to make fun of him. He is not the one you laugh at but learn from.5. needn’t have v-edneedn’t have v-ed 表示过去做了某事，但没有做的必要， 意为“本没必要,,”。例如：
You needn’ I don’t have to go to work today.注：表示推测过去某动作发生的可能性时，就表示的可能性程度而言，must最大，could其次，may更次之，might最小。例如：―I wonder how Tom knew about your past.‖―He must / could / may / might have heard of it from Mary.‖二、情态动词+行为动词进行式情态动词+行为动词进行式（即情态动词+ be + v-ing形式），表示推测或评论某动作现在是否正在进行。例如：1）He must be playing basketball in the room.2）She may be staying at home.三、情态动词+行为动词完成进行式情态动词+行为动词完成进行式（即情态动词+ have been + v-ing 形式），表示推测或评论过去某动作是否正在进行或一直在进行。例如：1）They should have been meeting to discuss the problem.2）He may / might have been buying stamps in the post office when you saw him.四、某些情态动词的特殊用法1. need考试中主要测试 need 作情态动词与作实义动词的区别，对此，可参见表1.need 作情态动词时，后面跟不带to 的动词不定式，即 ―need to‖。通常用在疑问句和否定句中，表示询问是否有“必要”，其否定形式为needn’t，表示“不必”；疑问形式为 Need ,, do? 极少用于肯定句。例如：1）I don’t think we need turn the light on at that time.2）Need you ride a bike to school?情态动词need与实义动词need 在时态、肯定、否定结构上的对比见表1。2. dare考试中主要测试dare作情态动词和作实义动词的区别。情态动词dare 与实义动词dare 在时态、肯定、否定、疑问结构上的对比见表2。3. can 和 may考试中主要测试can，may或could，might表示可能性的区别及对may构成的疑问句的回答。时态
情态动词need
实义动词 need现
You need (not) do
You (don’t) need to do在时
He need (not) do
He needs (doesn’t need) to do过
You needed (didn’t need) to do去时
He needed (didn’t need) to do将
You need (not) do
You will (not) need to do来时
He need (not) do
He will (not) need to do句型
动词情态动词dare
实义动词 dare肯定句
dare to 少用
dare/dares to do过去时
dare to 少用
dared to do否定句
daren’t/dare not do
do/does not dare (to) do过去时
dared not do
did not dare (to) do疑问句
Dare he do?
Do you/Does he dear (to) do?过去时
Dared he do?
Did he dare (to) do（1）can, could, may, might都可以表示可能性.can, could表示潜在的可能性或理论上或逻辑判断上存在的可能性；而may, might则表示事实上的可能性。此外，can还具有“有能力”的意思，而may与might则不具此意。例如：1）According to the weather forecast, it may rain tomorrow.2) Any man with a little sense can see that he is wrong.（2）May I / we ,,？这一类疑问句的肯定回答为Yes, please.或Certainly；否定回答为Please don’t.或No, you mustn’t. 例如：―May we leave now?‖ ―No, you mustn’t. You haven’t finished your home work yet.‖4. can 和 be able tocan 与 be able to 都可以表示能力，但两者在用法上有点差异：can (could)表示主观能力，不表示意愿，它的将来时用 be able to表示主观意愿，强调要克服困难去做某事。例如：1）My grandma is over seventy, but she can still read without glasses.2）He is able to give up his bad habits.5. must 和 have tomust 和 have to 都可以表示“必须”，但有几点区别：（1）must 强调“内在的职责”、“义务”，而have to 强调“外界压力”、“不得已而为之”。（2）have to可用于多种时态，而must一般用于现在时，其过去时与将来时分别由had to与shall / will have to代替。（3）在回答must引起的问题时，如果是否定的答复，不能用mustn’t，而要用needn’t或don’t have to，因为mustn’t是“一定不要”、“一定不能”的意思。例如：1）You must come to the classroom before eight.2）It is raining hard outside, but I have to leave now.3）―Must we do it now?‖ ―No, you needn’t.‖6. used to +v, be used to +v-ing和be used to +v（1）used to +v意为“过去常常”，“过去一直”；be used to +v-ing / n（名词）意为“习惯于”；be used to +v意为“被用来（做某事）”。（2）used to只表示过去，而be used to +v-ing / n可表示现在、过去或将来。例如：1）He used to smoke. Now he doesn’t.2）He’s quite used to hard work / working hard.3）The knife is used to cut bread.7．用作情态动词的其他短语would rather, would sooner, would (just) as soon, had rather, had better, had sooner, can not but, may (just) as well等可用作情态动词。例如：1）The soldier would sooner die than surrender.2）The brave soldier would as soon die as yield to such an enemy.3）I’d rather walk than take a bus.4）If you don’t like to swim, you may just as well stay at home.注：这些短语后一般直接跟动词原形.would (had) rather, would (had) sooner, would (just) as soon后可跟that 引导的从句，that 常省去，从句要用虚拟语气。对现在和将来的假设用过去时，对过去的假设用过去完成时。例如：1）I would rather you came on Sunday.2）I would sooner you hadn’t asked me to speak yesterday.动词不定式动词不定式是由“to + 动词原形”构成，如to laugh, to shout, 在句中可作主语、表语、宾语、定语、状语等。1.动词不定式的形式时态
被动态一般式
to be done进行式
to be doing完成式
to have done
to have been done完成进行式
to have been doing例1：John said that he had run in order to catch the bus. （一般式的主动态） 例2：He hated to be misunderstood by others. (一般式的被动态)例3：He pretended to be listening attentively. (进行式)例4：He intended to have told you that. (完成式主动态)例5：This work of art seemed to have been created several centuries ago. (完成式的被动态)例6：We’re happy to have been working with you. (完成进行式)2.动词不定式在句中充当的成分(1)作主语。例如：To see you is always a pleasure.To see once is better than to hear a hundred times.To make money is not the only purpose of our life.在很多情况下，常用it 来充当动词不定式的形式主语。例如：It feels good to be out here for a while.It’s difficult for me to recall his name.(2)作动词的宾语，常用在以下动词后：afford, agree, ask, attempt, bet, bother, begin, cease, claim, decline, demand, desire, dislike, expect, hasten, hate, hope, learn, decide, seem, intend, try, hesitate, permit, refuse, manage, order, compel, persuade, tend, fail, consent, choose, forget, mean, pledge, pretend, promise, seek, refuse, struggle, threaten, venture, volunteer, wait, wish 等。例如：He managed to pass the exam.He persuaded me to accept the invitation.He promised to be here at nine.I didn’t expect to see you here.在某些复合宾语中，常先用it代表不定式，而把不定式放到后面去。例如：He considered it better to leave now.I found it impossible to finish the work on time.(3)作定语（常置于名词之后）。例如：You’ll find something to interest you here.She is always the first student to arrive at school.注：动词不定式to后所接动词若是不及物动词，而不定式与其修饰的动词之间有动宾关系，这个不定式后就应有必要的介词。例如：I haven’t decided which hotel to stay at.I found no one to play with.(4)作表语。例如：He tried again only to fail. (修饰动词)Women are made to be loved, not to be understood. (修饰动词)French is difficult to learn. (修饰形容词)You’re old enough to know better. (修饰副词)不定式也可用在作表语用的形容词（或过去分词）后作状语，例如：He is anxious to go home.He is reluctant to agree with me.I’m sorry to interrupt you, but I have to. 在这类结构中常见的形容词（或过去分词）有anxious, eager, afraid, ready, sorry, reluctant, frightened, delighted, surprised 等。（6）作独立副词成分。例如：To do him justice, he is an honest man.To begin with, he is too young, and besides, he is not brave.(7)与疑问词连用。疑问代词who, what, which和疑问副词when, where, how等后加动词不定式，构成不定式短语，可在句子中作主语、宾语、表语等成分。例如：When to start has not been decided.The problem is how to get there on time.How to begin is more difficult than where to stop.The difficulty was which way to choose.在有些动词后常用疑问词 + 动词不定式的结构。这类动词有：know, ask, tell, show, wonder, consider, understand, learn, instruct, guess, see, explain, discover, imagine, think, hear 等。例如：He didn’t know what to do next.I haven’t decided whether to go to Japan.3.不定式的复合结构(1)由for + 名词或代词 + 动词不定式构成的复合结构在句中可作主语、表语、宾语、状语等。例如：It is important for the accounts to be ready by Friday.His idea is for us to travel in different cars.注：在动词后，for结构很少用。如不能说He wants for us to leave now, 但在动词arrange, suit和take (time) 等后可以用。例如：Can you arrange for the goods to b}