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DICOM( Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine )
DICOM即数字影像和通信标准。在医学影像信息学的发展和PACS的研究过程中，由于医疗设备生产厂商的不同，造成与各种设备有关的医学图像存储格式、传输方式千差万别，使得医学影像及其相关信息在不同系统、不同应用之间的交换受到严重阻碍。为此，美国放射学会（ACR）和全美电子厂商联合会（NEMA）认识到急需建立一种标准，以规范医学影像及其相关信息的交换，
DICOM标准就是在这样的背景下产生的
1 DICOM标准
ACR和NEMA联合组成委员会，在参考了其他相关国际标准（CNET251、JIRA、IEEE、HL7、ANSI等）的基础上，联合推出了医学数字图像存储与通信标准，即DICOM标准。它从最初的1.0版本（ACR-NEMAStandards Publications No.300-1985）到1988年推出的2.0版本（ACR-NEMA Standards PublicationsNO.300-1988），到1993年发布的DICOM标准3.0，已发展成为医学影像信息学领域的国际通用标准。
DICOM标准中涵盖了医学数字图像的采集、归档、通信、显示及查询等几乎所有信息交换的协议；以开放互联的架构和面向对象的方法定义了一套包含各种类型的医学诊断图像及其相关的分析、报告等信息的对象集；定义了用于信息传递、交换的服务类与命令集，以及消息的标准响应；详述了唯一标识各类信息对象的技术；提供了应用干网络环境（OSI或TCP/IP）的服务支持；结构化地定义了制造厂商的兼容性声明（Conformance
Statement）。
DICOM标准的推出与实现，大大简化了医学影像信息交换的实现，推动了远程放射学系统、图像管理与通信系统（PACS）的研究与发展，并且由于DICOM的开放性与互联性，使得与其它医学应用系统（HIS、RIS等）的集成成为可能。
2 DICOM标准的组成部分
DICOM标准具有良好的可扩充性。它由多部分组成，可以单独对某部分进行扩充；在各部分中，又将易于增加和修改的内容放到附录中，方便更新。目前DICOM标准（指DICOM3.0）由九部分组成（其它部分为正在讨论中的DICOM扩展部分）。
每一部分的标题我们大致可以知道该部分所包含的主题，其具体的内容在DICOM标准的文档中有着非常详实而且严谨的描述和定义，因为篇幅的缘故，我们在这里只能对其中的某些部分略为介绍，其它具体内容请参阅文档。
通过本论文前面章节的介绍可以知道，DICOM标准中的核心内容主要是在第三到第八部分，以及扩展的第十部分。其中第三部分的DICOM信息对象定义（IOD）和第四部分的服务类（Service Class）在本论文的第三章中已有介绍；第七、第八部分所讨论的DICOM通信规程，包括网络支持和网络消息交换等也在论文的第五章中有所介绍。因此，在这里要特别介绍的是标准中第五、第六部分所定义的DICOM数据结构、编码方式和解释，以及第十部分中的文件存储格式等。
3 DICOM 数据结构和文件格式
DICOM标准的第五部分介绍它的数据结构，它定义了数据集（Data Set）来保存前面所介绍的信息对象定义（IOD），数据集又由多个数据元素（Data Element）组成。每个数据元素描述一条信息（所有的标准数据元素及其对应信息在标准的第六部分列出），它由对应的标记（8位16进制数，如（），前4位是组号（GroupNumber），后十位是元素号（Element Number）唯一确定
DICOM数据元素分为两种，即：
● 标准（Standard）数据元素，组号为偶数，含义在标准中已定义。
● 私有（Private）数据元素，组号为奇数，其描述信息的内容由用户定义
DICOM3.0 标 准 文 件 内 容 概 要
第一部分：引言与概述，简要介绍了DICOM的概念及其组成。
第二部分：兼容性，精确地定义了声明DICOM要求制造商精确地描述其产品的DICOM兼容性，即构造一个该产品的DICOM兼容性声明，它包括选择什么样的信息对象、服务类、数据编码方法等，每一个用户都可以从制造商处得到这样一份声明。
第三部分：利用面向对象的方法，定义了两类信息对象类：普通性、复合型。
第四部分：服务类，说明了许多服务类，服务类详细论述了作用与信息对象上的命令及其产生的结果。
第五部分：数据结构及语意，描述了怎样对信息对象类和服务类进行构造和编码。
第六部分：数据字典，描述了所有信息对象是由数据元素组成的，数据元素是对属性值的编码。
第七部分：消息交换，定义了进行消息交换通讯的医学图像应用实体所用到的服务和协议。
第八部分：消息交换的网络通讯支持，说明了在网络环境下的通讯服务和支持DICOM应用进行消息交换的必要的上层协议。
第九部分：消息交换的点对点通讯支持，说明了与ACR—NEMA2.0兼容的点对点通讯的服务和协议。
第十部分：便于数据互换的介质存储方式和文件格式
第十一部分：介质存储应用框架
第十二部分：便于数据互换的介质格式和物理介质
第十三部分：打印管理的点对点通讯支持
第十四部分：亮度[灰度]色标显示功能标准
第十五部分：安全性概述
第十六部分：绘制资源目录
DICOM3.0标准特点
a)它对于一个网络环境是可用的。前几个版本只在点对点的环境中可用；对于在网络环境中的操作，需要一个网络接口单元（NIU）。DICOM版本3.0支持在网络环境中使用标准的网络协议的操作，如OSI和TCP/IP。
b)它详细说明了声称与标准兼容的设备如何对命令做出应答和数据如何被交换。前面几个版本在传输数据上受到限制，但DICOM 3.0通过服务类别的概念，指定了命令和相关数据的语义。
c)它详述了兼容性的等级。前面的版本指定了兼容性等级的最小集合。DICOM3.0清楚地描述了一个实现者必须如何构造一个与所选的特殊选项兼容的声明。
d)它按照多部分的文档结构来组织。通过简化新特性的增加，这种结构使标准在迅速发展的环境中的演变更为容易。ISO指示——定义如何去构造多部分文档——已经加入到DICOM标准的构造中。
e)它提出了明确的信息对象，并不只是针对图象和图形，还有研究、报告等。
f)它为唯一地识别任何信息对象指定了一个确定的技术。这促进了在网络上运作的信息对象之间的关系的明确定义。
符号和缩写
ACSE：联合控制服务元素
CT：计算X射线断层造影术
DICOM：医学数字成像和通讯
HIS：医院信息系统
NIU：网络接口单元
OSI：开放系统互连
PACS：图像归档和传输系统
RIS：放射学信息系统
TCP/IP：传输控制协议/互连网协议
DICOM官网：
Front page of ACR/NEMA 300, version 1.0, which wasreleased in 1985
DICOM is thethird version of a standard developed by American Collegeof Radiology (ACR) and National ElectricalManufacturers Association (NEMA).
In the beginningof the 1980s it was almost impossible for anyone other than manufacturers ofcomputed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging devices to decode the imagesthat the machines generated.
Radiologists and medical physicists wanted to usethe images for dose-planning for radiation therapy. ACR and NEMA joined forcesand formed a standard committee in 1983. Their first standard, ACR/NEMA 300,was released in 1985. Very soon after its release, it
became clear thatimprovements were needed. The text was vague and had internal contradictions.
In 1988 thesecond version was released. This version gained more acceptances amongvendors. The image transmission was specified as over a dedicated 25differential (EIA-485) pair cable. The first
demonstration of ACR/NEMA V2.0interconnectivity technology was held at Georgetown University,May 21–23, 1990. Six companies participated in this event, DeJarnette ResearchSystems, General Electric Medical Systems, Merge Technologies, Siemens MedicalSystems,
Vortech (acquired by Kodak that same year) and 3M. Commercial equipment supporting ACR/NEMA2.0 was presented at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of NorthAmerica (RSNA) in 1990 by these same vendors. Many soon realized that thesecond version also
needed improvement. Several extensions to ACR/NEMA 2.0 werecreated, like Papyrus (developed by the University Hospital of Geneva,Switzerland) and SPI, (Standard Product Interconnect, driven by Siemens MedicalSystems and Philips Medical Systems).
The first largescale deployment of ACR/NEMA technology was made in 1992 by the US Army and AirForce as part of the MDIS (Medical Diagnostic Imaging Support) program run outof Ft. Detrick, Maryland.
Loral Aerospace and Siemens Medical Systems led aconsortium of companies in deploying the first US military PACS (Picture Archivingand Communications System) at all major Army and Air Force medical treatmentfacilities and teleradiology nodes at a large number
of US military clinics.DeJarnette Research Systems and Merge Technologies provided the modalitygateway interfaces from third party imaging modalities to the Siemens SPInetwork. The Veterans Administration and the Navy also purchased systems offthis contract.
In 1993 the thirdversion of the standard was released. Its name was then changed to DICOM so asto improve the possibility of international acceptance as a standard. Newservice classes were defined,
network support added and the ConformanceStatement was introduced. Officially, the latest version of the standard isstill 3.0, however, it has been constantlyupdated and extended since 1993. Instead of using the version number
thestandard is often version-numbered using the release year, like &the 2007version of DICOM&.
While the DICOMstandard has achieved a near universal level of acceptance amongst medicalimaging equipment vendors and healthcare IT organizations, the standard has itslimitations.DICOM
is a standard directed ataddressing technical interoperability issues in medical imaging. It is not aframework or architecture for achieving a useful clinical workflow.RSNA's Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise(IHE)initiative
layered on top of DICOM (and ) provides this finalpiece of the medical imaging interoperability puzzle.
There are somederivations from the DICOM standard into other application areas. This includes
·& DICONDE -Digital Imaging and Communication in Nondestructive Evaluation, wasestablished in 2004 as a way for nondestructive testing manufacturers and usersto share image data.
·& DICOS - DigitalImaging and Communication in Security was established in 2009 to be usedfor image sharing in airport security.
DICOM differsfrom some, but not all, data formats in that it groups information into.That means that a file of a chest
X-Ray image, for example, actually containsthe patient ID within the file, so that the image can never be separated fromthis information by mistake. This is similar to the way that image formats suchas
can alsohave embedded tags to identify and otherwise describe the image.
A DICOM dataobject consists of a number of attributes, including items such as name, ID,etc., and also one special attribute containing the image pixel data (i.e.logically, the main object has no
&header& as such: merely a list ofattributes, including the pixel data). A single DICOM object can only containone attribute containing pixel data. For many modalities, this corresponds to asingle image. But note that the attribute may contain multiple&frames&,
allowing storage of cine loops or other multi-frame data.Another example is NM data, where an NM image by definition is amulti-dimensional multi-frame image. In these cases three- or four-dimensionaldata can be encapsulated in a single DICOM object. Pixel
data can be compressedusing a variety of standards, including JPEG, JPEG Lossless, JPEG 2000, andRun-length encoding (RLE). LZW (zip) compression can be used for the whole dataset (not just the pixel data) but this is rarely implemented.
DICOM uses threedifferent Data Element encoding schemes. With Explicit Value Representation(VR) Data Elements, for VRs that are not OB,OW, OF, SQ, UT, or UN, the format for each Data Element is:
GROUP (2 bytes)ELEMENT (2 bytes) VR (2 bytes) LengthInByte (2 bytes) Data (variable length).For the other Explicit Data Elements or Implicit Data Elements, see section 7.1of Part 5 of the DICOM Standard.
The same basicformat is used for all applications, including network and file usage, but whenwritten to a file, usually a true &header& (containing copies of afew key attributes and details of the
application which wrote it) is added.
·& Extractedfrom Chapter 6.2
Value Representation
Description
Application Entity
Age String
Attribute Tag
Code String
Decimal String
Floating Point Single (4 bytes)
Floating Point Double (8 bytes)
Integer String
Long String
Other Byte
Other Float
Other Word
Person Name
Short String
Signed Long
Sequence of Items
Signed Short
Short Text
Unique Identifier
Unsigned Long
Unsigned Short
Unlimited Text
In addition to aValue Representation, each attribute also has a Value Multiplicity to indicatethe number of data elements contained in the attribute. For character stringvalue representations, if
more than one data element is being encoded, thesuccessive data elements are separated by the backslash character&\&.
DICOM consists ofmany different services, most of which involve transmission of data over anetwork, and the file format below is a later and relatively minor addition tothe standard.
The DICOM Storeservice is used to send images or other persistent objects (structured reports,etc.) to a
or workstation.
The DICOM storagecommitment service is used to confirm that an image has been permanently storedby a device (either on redundant disks or on backup media, e.g. burnt to a CD).The Service Class User
(SCU: similar to a ), a modality or workstation, etc., usesthe confirmation from the Service Class Provider (SCP: similar to a), an archive station for instance,
tomake sure that it is safe to delete the images locally.
This enables aworkstation to find lists of images or other such objects and then retrievethem from a PACS.
This enables apiece of imaging equipment (a modality) to obtain details of patients andscheduled examinations electronically, avoiding the need to type suchinformation multiple times (and the mistakes
caused by retyping).
A complementaryservice to Modality Worklist, this enables the modality to send a report abouta performed examination including data about the images acquired, beginningtime, end time, and duration
of a study, dose delivered, etc. It helps give theradiology department a more precise handle on resource (acquisition station)use. Also known as MPPS, this service allows a modality to better coordinatewith image storage servers by giving the server a list
of objects to sendbefore or while actually sending such objects.
The DICOMPrinting service is used to send images to a DICOM Printer, normally to printan &X-Ray& film. There is a standard calibration (defined in DICOMPart 14) to help ensure consistency between
various display devices, includinghard copy printout.
The off-linemedia files correspond to Part 10 of the DICOM standard. It describes how tostore medical imaging information on removable media. Except for the data setcontaining, for example, an image
and demography, it's also mandatory toinclude the File Meta Information.
DICOM restrictsthe filenames on DICOM media to 8 characters (some systems wrongly use 8.3, butthis does not conform to the standard). No information must be extracted fromthese names (PS3.10 Section
6.2.3.2). This is acommon source of problems with media created by developers who did not read thespecifications carefully. This is a historical requirement to maintaincompatibility with older existing systems. It also mandates the presence of amedia directory,
the DICOMDIR file, which provides index and summaryinformation for all the DICOM files on the media. The DICOMDIR informationprovides substantially greater information about each file than any filenamecould, so there is less need for meaningful file names.
DICOM filestypically have a .dcm file extension if they are not part of a DICOM media(which requires them to be without extension).
type for DICOMfiles is defined by as application/dicom.
type for DICOMfiles is org.nema.dicom.
There is also anongoing media exchange test and &connectathon& process for CD mediaand network operation that is organized by the
organization.
Description
Modality of type
Modality of type Biomagnetic Imaging
Modality of type Color Flow Doppler - Retired 2008
Modality of type Cinefluorography - Retired
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type Duplex Doppler - Retired 2008
Modality of type Diaphanography
Modality of type Digital Microscopy - Retired
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type General Microscopy
Modality of type Hard Copy
Modality of type
Modality of type
Surface Scan
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type
Modality of type Other
Modality of type
Modality of type
Dose (a.k.a. RTDOSE)
Modality of type
Modality of type Radiographic Imaging (conventional film screen)
Modality of type Radiotherapy Image
Modality of type Radiotherapy Plan (a.k.a. RTPLAN)
Modality of type Radiotherapy Structure Set (a.k.a RTSTRUCT)
Modality of type
Modality of type Secondary Capture
Modality of type Slide Microscopy
Modality of type Structured Reporting
Modality of type Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (retired 2008)
Modality of type
Modality of type Ultrasound
Modality of type Videofluorography - Retired
Modality of type Visible Light
Modality of type
X-Ray Angiography
Modality of type External Camera (Photography)
DICOM havereserved the following TCP and UDP port numbers by the Internet AssignedNumbers Authority (IANA):
for DICOM over TCP or UDP. Since 104is in the reserved subset, many operating systems require special privileges touse it.
·& 2761registered port for DICOM using (ISCL) over TCP or UDP
·& 2762registered port for DICOM using Transport Layer Security (TLS) over TCP or UDP
·& 11112registered port for DICOM using standard, open communication over TCP or UDP
The standardrecommends but does not require the use of these port numbers.
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(1)(7)(1)(1)(14)(9)Please enter no more than 256 characters什么意思啊？_百度知道
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出门在外也不愁高频词，一定要记住哦！
（做出逻辑推断）；
（表示坚持）
必须做的事，必不可少的事物；
（表示必要或很重要）必须；
（提出建议）应该；
（表示很可能或符合逻辑）一定
不可或缺的；
过去分词：
现在分词：
第三人称单数：
大家都在背：
1. You must have noticed how tired he sometimes looks.
你一定注意到他有时候显得特别疲惫。
来自柯林斯例句
2. "His memory must be completely back, then?" — "Just about."
“这么说，他的记忆一定是完全恢复了？”——“差不多。”
来自柯林斯例句
3. There must be any number of people in my position.
一定有很多人处在我这种境况。
来自柯林斯例句
4. I must have driven past that place thousands of times.
我得有上千次开车经过那里。
来自柯林斯例句
5. "You must come to Tinsley's graduation party." — "I'd be delighted."
“你一定要来参加廷斯利的毕业聚会。”——“我很乐意。”
来自柯林斯例句
must needs do something
： 通俗用语，指受客观条件或环境迫使而"不得不"做某事，突出客观性。
： 通常表示命令或说话人主观认为必须要做某事，含强调语气，侧重主观性。
Must is a modal verb. It is followed by the base form of a verb.must为情态动词，后跟动词原形。
The noun is pronounced /m?st/. 名词读作 /m?st/。
必须；一定要 You use must to indicate that you think it is very important or necessary for something to happen. You use must not or mustn't to indicate that you think it is very important or necessary for something not to happen.&
What you wear should be stylish and clean, and must definitely fit well...
你的穿着应该整洁漂亮，而且必须非常合身。
You are going to have to take a certain amount of criticism, but you must cope with it...
你肯定会遭到一些批评，但你必须去面对。
The doctor must not allow the patient to be put at risk...
医生决不能置患者于危险境地而不顾。
(通常因为规定或法律)必须，应当 You use must to indicate that it is necessary for something to happen, usually because of a rule or law.&
Candidates must satisfy the general conditions for admission...
候选人必须满足参选的总体条件。
Mr Allen must pay Mr Farnham's legal costs...
艾伦先生应当支付法纳姆先生的诉讼费。
Equipment must be supervised if children are in the house.
如果孩子们在屋里，必须有人监管设备。
(用于表示肯定推测)一定，谅必 You use must to indicate that you are fairly sure that something is the case.&
At 29 Russell must be one of the youngest ever Wembley referees...
29岁的拉赛尔一定是有史以来温布利球场上的裁判员中最年轻的一个。
Reggae must be the only music that's got its own country — Jamaica...
雷盖音乐得到了一整个国家人民的支持，这个国家就是牙买加——这一点上它无疑是独一无二的。
I'm sure he must feel he has lost a close family friend, because I know I do...
我敢说他一定觉得自己失去了一位亲密的世交，因为我知道我是这种感觉。
(用于表示据已知情况推测)很可能是，想必是，肯定是 You use must, or must have with a past participle, to indicate that you believe that something is the case, because of the available evidence.&
'You must be Emma,' said the visitor...
来客说：“你肯定是埃玛。”
Miss Holloway had a weak heart. She must have had a heart attack...
霍洛韦小姐心脏不好，她肯定得过心脏病。
His only explanation was that he must have brought them home in order to continue his work...
他唯一的解释是，自己想必是为了继续工作而把它们带回家了。
(用于表示前者为后者的前提)应该已经(发生) If you say that one thing must have happened in order for something else to happen, you mean that it is necessary for the first thing to have happened before the second thing can happen.&
In order to take that job, you must have left another job...
为得到那份工作，你肯定已辞去了另一份工作。
In order to start reading this book you must have had some idea that the physical symptoms you were experiencing were due to anxiety.
开始读这本书之前，你一定已经了解到：你身体的不适症状是源于焦虑。
(用于表示意图)一定要，坚持要 You use must to express your intention to do something.&
I must be getting back...
我一定要回来。
I must have a whiskey...
我要喝杯威士忌。
I must telephone my parents...
我一定要给父母打电话。
(用于表示建议或邀请)务必，一定要 You use must to make suggestions or invitations very forcefully.&
You must see a doctor, Frederick...
弗雷德里克，你一定得去看医生。
You must see the painting Paul has given me as a wedding present...
你一定要看看保罗送给我作结婚礼物的那幅画。
You must come to lunch with us...
你一定要来和我们一起吃午饭。
(用于表示同情)必定，想必 You use must in remarks and comments where you are expressing sympathy.&
This must be a very difficult job for you...
对你来说，这份工作想必很难。
You must be very worried by now...
你现在一定非常担心。
Now sit down and make yourself comfortable. You must be very tired.
现在坐下来，让自己舒服些，你一定很累了。
(用于强调)我得说/我得承认 You use must in conversation in expressions such as 'I must say' and 'I must admit' in order to emphasize a point that you are making.&
【语用信息】：emphasis
This came as a surprise, I must say...
我得说这真是个意外。
I must admit I like looking feminine...
我得承认我喜欢看起来淑女一些。
They were very polite, I must confess.
我得承认他们很有礼貌。
(用于引起读者或听众的注意)一定要注意/一定记住 You use must in expressions such as 'it must be noted' and 'it must be remembered' in order to draw the reader's or listener's attention to what you are about to say.&
It must be noted, however, that not all British and American officers carried out orders...
然而，一定要注意不是所有的英国和美国军官都执行了命令。
It must be stated that this illness is one of the most complex conditions known to man.
必须声明，这种疾病是人类已知的最为复杂的疾病之一。
(用于问句中表示生气)偏偏，非要 You use must in questions to express your anger or irritation about something that someone has done, usually because you do not understand their behaviour.&
【语用信息】：feelings
Why must you do everything as if you have to win?...
你为什么做每件事情都跟你非要赢似的？
Why must she inter-rupt?...
她为什么非要插嘴？
Must you always run when the pressure gets too much?
难道压力一大你就非要逃开吗？
(用于感叹句，表示惊讶或震惊)一定是，准是 You use must in exclamations to express surprise or shock.&
【语用信息】：emphasis
'Go! Please go.' — 'You must be joking!'...
“走吧！请走吧。”——“你一定是在开玩笑吧！”
I really must be quite mad!...
真的，我一定是气坏了！
You must have gone out of your mind!
你准是疯了！
必不可少的事物;一定要做的事 If you refer to something as a must, you mean that it is absolutely necessary.&
【搭配模式】：usu a N in sing
【STYLE标签】：INFORMAL 非正式
The new 37th issue of National Savings Certificates is a must for any taxpayer...
新发行的第37期国家储蓄债券是任何一个纳税人的必然之选。
A must is a visit to the fascinating and world-renowned Motor Museum.
一定要去参观一下那个举世闻名且精彩有趣的汽车博物馆。
如果你一定要(这样做的话) You say 'if you must' when you know that you cannot stop someone doing something that you think is wrong or stupid.&
【搭配模式】：usu PHR inf
If you must be in the sunlight, use the strongest filter cream you can get...
如果一定要呆在太阳底下的话，就擦上你能买到的防晒系数最高的防晒霜。
'Could I have a word?' — 'Oh dear, if you must.'...
“我能说一句吗？”——“亲爱的，如果你非说不可的话，好吧。”
If you must have a cigarette, choose a seat in the first row of the smoking section.
如果你一定要吸烟的话，去吸烟区的第一排找个座位。
如果你一定想要知道的话 You say 'if you must know' when you tell someone something that you did not want them to know and you want to suggest that you think they were wrong to
ask you about it.&
【搭配模式】：PHR with cl
'Why don't you wear your jogging shorts Mum?' — 'Well, my legs are too skinny, if you must know.'
“妈妈，为什么不穿你的慢跑短裤呢？”——“哦，如果你非要问的话，因为我的腿太瘦了。”
'You told him you'd been there that night.' — 'If you must know, yes.'
“你跟他说过你那天夜里去过那儿了。”——“是的，如果你非要问的话。”
If you can't finish the book by then, you must come and renew it.
这本书如果你到时候还看不完, 就必须来续借。
The children must be back by 4 o'clock.
孩子们必须四点钟以前回来。
You must remember to write home.
你必须记着给家里写信。
We mustn't waste our time.
我们不应该浪费时间。
“May I take this magazine out?”“No, you mustn't.”
“我可以把这本杂志借走吗?”“不, 不行。”
He said he must go tomorrow.
他说他明天必须去。
2. 必然要, 必定会
We must all die.
人都是要死的。
How long must this go on?What's the sense of this?
这种局势要持续多久呢?它有什么意义呢?
3. (做出逻辑推断)
He must be mad.
他一定是疯了。
You must be joking.
你一定是在开玩笑吧。
This house must belong to John.
这栋房子一定是约翰的。
She must have been young when she got married.
她结婚时一定很年轻。
You must win, if you do your best.
如果你全力以赴, 一定能赢。
4. (表示坚持)
If you must smoke, at least you could use an ashtray.
如果你一定要吸烟, 起码总可以用一个烟灰缸吧。
Why must you always be finding fault with that girl?
你为何总是要找那个姑娘的错呢?
1. 必须做的事, 必不可少的事物
Warm clothes are a must in the mountains.
到山区去穿暖和的衣服是必须的。
1. （表示必要或很重要）必须
2. （提出建议）应该，得
3. （表示很可能或符合逻辑）一定
1. a necessar
"seat belts are an absolute must"
2. grape juice before or during fermentation
3. the quality of smelling or tasting old or stale or mouldy
"a book that is must reading"
1.鲜葡萄汁，果汁：葡萄或其他水果的未发酵汁液
MuST的全称：
未分类的(3)
MISR University for Science and Technology (Egypt)
MISR大学科技(埃及)
Multi-Sector Skills Training Programme (Trinidad and Tobago)
多元化的技能培训项目(特立尼达和多巴哥)
multiplex selection technique
多路选择技术
字典中得字的解释 ... (2) 德,道德,有德之人[ virtue] 必须,应该[ must] 合适;正确[right].
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人教版小学英语六年级上、下册单词表_百度文库 ... something 某事物 must 一定；肯定 fun 快乐；乐趣.
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And they must reapply for the awards each semester ., 并且他们每个学期还要重新申请奖学金.
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字典中得字的解释 ... (2) 德,道德,有德之人[ virtue] 必须,应该[ must] 合适;正确[right].
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新目标八年级英语下册短语归纳全册 ... 16. all the time 一直 20. must be 一定是 21. keep down 保持音量.
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1. 我们必须
t We must move quickly ., 行动之前要三思 ; 我们必须行动迅速.
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拇指玩我必须跑 I Must Run! FREE安卓手机游戏高清截图下一张游戏简介游戏中你需要越过城市中各种障碍物和陷阱,到达市中心的家中救你的妻子,记住,你只有.
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salute the sun for whom I must make way ., 等待向太阳致敬 , 因为我得给向它让路.
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you promised to write the article , you must do it ., 你必须写 , 你答应写一篇文章的.
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you must tell the world to stop turning ., 可您必须让地球停止转动.
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