英语语法大全
第12单元 动词（6）
　　Ⅳ．动词的4个体
　　1148 “体”（又叫动相）（Aspect）是动词值得注意的另一特点，它表示动作完成的程度。12个时态不仅表示了时间，还表示了动作完成的程度，但时态的讨论还没有对完成程度作充分讨论。为了更好地了解时态，须对“体”作一番研究。一个动词有4个主要“体”，表示完成的四种程度。它可以表示一个动作的全过程，它的开始，或终结，和它的反复。体可以由单一动词表示，如blacken，marry，grumble，也可由动词短语表示，也就是一个动词和另外词的组合体，如 get married，come to terms，give up gambling，talk and talk，use up，cease to play．
　　为了对4个体有所了解，请先看下面的句子：
　　Now it was time they ate（全过程）their lunch．As soon as the meal was ready，Mother cried，“Wash your hands，John，before you start eating（动作的开始）．”About three minutes passed and John was already full up．“You often eat（反复动作）between meals，so you lose your appetite．Wash your hands again after you finish eating（动作结束）．”
　　A．一般形式
　　1．一般体
　　1149 我们先研究一下一般形式的4个体。
　　多数动词都表示一个动作的全过程，这种动词可以说属于一般体（Simple Aspect）。这种体表示一个能延续较长时间的动作或状态，在不表示特殊体时都用这个体：
　　He spoke to me．He studied English．Mary walked to the distant hill．He wrote letters．（表示动作的动词）
　　He hates me．I know it．I think you are right．That belonged to Mary．This resembled that．（表示状态的动词）
　　He is a crazy fellow．This city seems dirty．She looks sad．
　　This fruit tastes sweet．（某些系动词）
　　2．起始体
　　1150 先看下面这段短文：
　　These two countries had been at peace for many，many years．In 1820，however，they harshly criticized each other，so their relations were tense．After a year，they fought a war，which continued for forty years．Then their diplomats discussed how to end the bloodshed．They talked for ten years before they agreed．
　　可以看出，斜体动词，从上下文判断，都表示重要的变化，但这些一般体的动词没有把变化清楚讲出。现在再看下面短文，注意斜体动词及动词短语，如何清楚表现出新动作或状态的开始。这些强调动作开头的动词或动词短语可说属于起始体（Ingressive Aspect）。由于它们也表示一个短暂的动作，这个体也可称作短暂体（Instantaneous Aspect）：
　　These two countries had been at peace for many，many years．In 1820，however，they began to harshly criticize each other，so their relations became tense．After a year，they started a war，which continued for forty years．Then their diplomats came to the table to discuss how to end the bloodshed．They talked for ten years before they arrived at an agreement．
　　1151 从上面例子中可以看出，英语中有许多对动词或动词短语，如 were和 became，fought a war和 started a war，agreed和 arrived at an agreement，意思相近，却属于不同的体。在语法上，用哪种体都对，但在修辞上，选择能表示确切的体的词则更好一些。在下面例子中，起始体由“i”表示，一般体由“s”表示：
　　a）I know（s）love is sacred；I learned（i）it when I was a mere child．（起始体或一般体都可由一单个动词表示）
　　（若把know和learned，也就是一般体和起始体的位置互换，会使句子显得很别扭，尽管它们的意思相同。）
　　I have（s） a very lovely dog，and I got（i） it from a friend．
　　I keep（s） my books on the shelves，and I put（i）them back every time I use them．
　　I have employed（s） this secretary for a long time，and I engaged（i） her in 1965．
　　He borrowed（i） ten thousand pounds five years ago，and now he still owes（s） me five hundred．
　　I arrived（i） there on April 1，and stayed（s）there two months．
　　b）“I know（s） John very well．”“When did you make his acquaintance（i）？”（起始体可以由动词短语表示）
　　At first I thought（s） that nobody could do that，but then it occurred（i） to me that John could．
　　I can‘t remember（s）my promise unless I am reminded （i）of it．
　　Since he was frightened（i） by a ghost，he has been afraid（s） to go in the dark．
　　He is in love with（s） Mary．He fell in love with（i） her last year．
　　c）He cannot wake up（i）early this morning，because last night he lay awake（s）all night．
　　“I have not seen（s）him for a long time．I don’t remember when I lost sight of（i）him．”“But I caught sight of （i） him among the crowd the other day．”
　　Everyone laughed and laughed（s），except Mary，who kept serious a few moments，but then burst forth laughing（or crying）（i）．
　　After he spoke（s） to me for two hours，I broke silence （i）．
　　d）Ask her to wait．I‘ll put on（i）my coat．It would be impolite to wear（s） these pajamas．
　　I go to bed（i） at ten，fall asleep（i） about half an hour later，and I sleep（s） eight hours．
　　He has held（s） the political power for ten years．
　　He seized hold of（i） it from another party．
　　But I believe he will lose his hold of（i） it very soon．
　　You can do（s）the job，but when can you begin（or start，commence）（i）it？（commence为书面语）
　　It is easy to manage（or run，handle，conduct）（s） the business，but difficult to start（i） it．
　　All of them had already stood（s）in front of the principal，and then I took my place（i） beside Lily．
　　e）I am sick（s）．I got sick（i）two days ago when I walked in the rain．（有些系动词表示一般体，有些表示起始体。）
　　He looks old（s）．He grew old（i）last year，when he lost his wife．
　　“She appears mad（s）．”“She is．She ran mad（i）because all of her four sons were killed on the battlefield．”
　　“She looks pale（s）”“She turns pale（i） every time she gets frightened．”
　　He is a robber（s）．He turned robber（i）merely for revenge．
　　He commenced writer（i）in the beginning of this century，and is a writer（s） of international fame today．
　　He is a victim（s）of love．He does not know how and when he fell a victim（i）to her charms．
　　A thing becomes of great importance（i）the moment you THINK it is（s）．
　　f）“I must set it right（i）．”“Yes，if you do not think it right（s）．”（起始体或一般体也可由宾补动词和宾语补语表示出来）
　　The children make the floor dirty（i）．Their mother leaves it dirty（s）and doesn’t care．
　　“I consider the situation difficult（s）”“But who renders it so（i）？”
　　I found it clean（s） enough．Maybe the maid had washed it clean（i）．
　　（其他起始体动词还有 paint it red，cut it short，raise it high，break it open，etc．）
　　Let us set the ball flying（=make the ball fly）（i）．
　　This accident set us thinking（i）．
　　He started the machine going（i）．
　　1152 一般体的动词可以在前面加一个begin或其同义词使它变为起始体：
　　We began（or started）to study poetry．
　　We began（or started） playing a game．
　　He commenced looking for a wife．
　　I started in to write a story after I had learned the rules．
　　We started out to practise as surgeons after we were graduated．
　　We set about to repair the road immediately after it was bombed．
　　It set in to snow （or snowing）．
　　We fell to eating the roast pigeons as soon as everyone was present．
　　He could find no other solace，so he took to drinking．
　　He was extremely stubborn，but finally he came to see his own fault．
　　At first he neglected my advice．At last he got to believe it．
　　He had been a playboy for two years．
　　In the end he grew to know the danger．
　　1153 包含to或into的动词短语可能是起始体，除非这些介词只表示方向：
　　a）They came to blows（=began to fight），came to an understanding（=began to understand each other），came to loggerheads（＝began to quarrel），came to man‘s estate （＝began to reach manhood）．
　　It came to the front（＝began to be prominent），came to our knowledge（=began to be known to us），came to light（＝began to be disclosed），came to a standstill（=began to be stagnant）．
　　They went to law（＝began a suit in a law-court），went to bed（=began to rest），went to bad（=began to be de bauched），rose to eminence（＝began to be eminent）．
　　b）It came into force（＝began to be enforced），came into use （=began to be used），came into existence（＝began to exist），came into sight（＝began to be seen）．
　　They fell into company with John（＝began to know John），fell into error（=began to make mistakes），fell into the shade （=began to be obscure），fell into the hands of the enemy（=began to be controlled by the en emy）．
　　They entered into correspondence（or negotiation，agreement，a war，a contract）with us（＝began to corre spond，negotiate，etc．，with us）．
　　They sank into poverty（＝began to be poor）．
　　They turned （or changed，translated，transformed）this into that．
　　He united（or mixed）these things into one．
　　He divided one into many．
　　It grew（or developed，degenerated，ripened）into something different．
　　1154 由take开始的动词短语可能是起始体：
　　He took a fancy（or a liking） to it（=began to like it），took an interest in it（=began to notice it），took over the government（=began to control the government），took charge of the business（=began to manage it），took pity on him（＝began to pity him），took possession of（=took over）the property．
　　1155 祈使句中的谓语动词（即使是一般体动词）也总是起始体，因为动词表示的动作要求开始进行：
　　Come here．Do it at once．Love your neighbours．
　　Hate your enemy．Know yourself．Be a good boy．Let everybody mind his own business．
　　1156 有些一般体动词偶尔也可用作起始体动词：
　　When he told me the news，I was aware（=began to know）that the rumour was false．
　　He saw the broken window and was（=became）immediately angry．
　　Since he was（=got）married，he has been a different man．
　　He is just dead（=has just died）．
　　I first knew him（=made his acquaintance）in 1960．
　　He lay down and slept（=fell asleep）．
　　You will see her and love（＝fall in love with）her．
　　I have thought him a good worker since I employed（=engaged）him．
　　3．终结体
　　1157 有些动词或动词短语，表示一个动作的结束，这类动词则属于终结体（Terminative Aspect）。
　　1158 有些系动词表示终结体：
　　He proved（to be） honest．（=He was finally found to be honest．）
　　She grew up（to be）a pretty girl．
　　He turned out（=proved）a good man．
　　He came out a different man．
　　He went off a victor．
　　He emerged a victor．
　　1159 一般体的动词，如在前面加finish或其同义词，可以变为终结体：
　　We should now stop quarrelling（=quarrel no more）．
　　Can be give up smoking？
　　Please quit（or leave off）playing tricks．
　　He ceased to sell（or selling）apples long ago．
　　1160 包含有up，down，out，through，away等副词的动词短语可以表示终结体，除非这些副词表示方向：
　　a）Everything was burned up．（up表示“彻底地”）
　　The river dried up．
　　He tied（or fastened，locked，chained，sealed，screwed，packed，shut，folded）it up．
　　He set（or mix，fix）it up．
　　b）The tempest died down．（down表示减少到较少程度或完全消失）
　　The clock ran down．
　　The shoes wore down．
　　The factory（was）closed down．
　　The revolution（was）calmed down．
　　Slow down the car．
　　The fire burned down．
　　I must quiet down his excited mind．
　　c）I will carry through the task．（through表示完成）She got through（=passed）the exam．
　　He will read the book through．
　　I saw the matter through（from the beginning to the end）．
　　Go through with the novel．
　　When will you be through with（＝finish）my book？d）The fire burned itself out（or burned no more）．She had her sleep out（=slept to her heart’s content）．He sat out the play（=sat until it was finished）．He slept out the night．
　　He can‘t hold out（=endure to the end）．
　　The fire（or The cup，The purse，The copyright，The week）is out（＝is finished）．
　　e）The water boiled away．
　　His last hope faded away．
　　1161 包含till，to 或into的动词短语，若表示动作的结果或结束，也属于终结体：
　　He lived till ninety-nine．
　　He worked until midnight．
　　He was beaten till death．
　　She cried herself to sleep．
　　He argued to the end of time．
　　We fought to the last man．
　　He revenged himself to his heart’s content．
　　To my greatest astonishment he suddenly appeared at midnight．
　　He was loved to his ruin．
　　All efforts came to nothing．
　　He came to an untimely end．
　　He went to extremes（or rack and ruin，no good，the dogs）．
　　The plan went to pieces（or nought，the winds，the ground）．
　　He fell into the shade（=was no more noticed）．
　　He fell into oblivion（=was no more remembered）after many years of popularity．
　　1162 包含有表示结果的不定式或从句的动词短语可以是终结体：
　　The child grew to be an old man．
　　He lived to see his son becoming the president．
　　He tried to avoid a small trouble only to meet with a bigger one．
　　He left his family never to return home．
　　He worked hard so that he got a medal．
　　He spoke eloquently so that thousands of people followed him．
　　1163 有些一般体的动词表示企图，有些终结体的动词表示结果。这两类动词的差别很重要，需要记在心中。如果说He killed himself，but he was saved就是自相矛盾。说I persuaded him，but he didn‘t listen to me．也如此。同样，I resigned，but my boss did not allow me to．也是不对的。因为3个斜体词，从上下文看是指企图，而从词义看却指结果。
　　如说 He killed himself．则表明他已经死了。说I persuaded him．则表示已经让他接受了劝告。如果在这些动词前加上try或其他同义的词，或改用其他动词，如：He tried to kill himself．I advised him．I wished to resign．则句子就可讲通了。
　　1164 注意下面例句中这两类动词的差别，“a”代表企图（attempt），“r”代表“结果”（result）：
　　a）You can advise（a） him，but you cannot persuade（r）him to do it．
　　I can speak to（a） him and also convince（r） him of his folly．
　　I listened and listened（a） but heard（r） nothing．
　　I looked（a），but saw（r） nothing．
　　I memorized（a） the poem but I was unable to remember （r）it．
　　Though he has learned（a） English many years，he does not know（r） it．
　　He went（a） to the island but was shipwrecked before he arrived（r）．
　　I looked for（a） my lost hat and found（r） it in a corner．
　　You can fight（a） him，but can you beat（r） him？
　　Can you conquer （r） him？
　　b）I tried to convince（a） him，but he is not convinced（r） of his mistake．（表示结果的动词，若在前面加一个 try或其同义词，可以变成表示企图的动词。）
　　He tried to commit suicide，but he was saved．
　　He has tried three times to escape，but he got arrested as many times．
　　I attempted to prevent（or discourage） him from smoking，and I succeeded．
　　The more I try to sleep（a），the less I can sleep（r）．
　　I am not sure whether I can come（r），but I will try to come（a）．
　　c） Before the fish bit at（a） the worms，it had been hooked up．（在表示结果的动词后，如果加介词at，也可能把它变成一个表示企图的动词。）
　　He shot at（a） me and hit（r） me in the arm．
　　Many stones were thrown at（a） me，but none hit（r）anyone．
　　d）I should like to take a look（or a glance，a nap，a stroll，a drive，a ride）．（“Take a，have a或 give a+由动词变来的单音节名词”可以表示企图，用来表示结果的短语为“have taken a look，a glance”等。）
　　I should like to have a try（or a go at it，a taste，a look，a drive，a ride）．But after I had had a try，（a go at it，etc．），I was so disappointed．
　　4．反复体
　　1165 有些动词或动词短语表示一连串反复进行的同样动作，这种动词属于反复体：
　　He talked and talked．（重复的动词）
　　She sang，sang，and sang the same song all day long．
　　He counted his money again and again．（动词加上表示频度的副词）
　　He never（or seldom，sometimes，often，continually）smokes．
　　He told me the story over and over again．
　　He was ill．He went to the toilet repeatedly．
　　He walked on and on．
　　We met twice a week．We still hoped to understand each other better．
　　He is accustomed（or used） to reading several French newspapers before breakfast．（表示习惯的动词短语）
　　He has the habit of eating icecream after a meal．He used to eat at the restaurant．
　　He is in the habit of going to bed after midnight．He makes it a rule to see me on Sunday．
　　He gets up at six in the morning．（一般时态可表示反复发生的动作，包括现在、过去，将来。）
　　He smokes．
　　I usually have milk in the morning．
　　He who plays with fire gets burned in the end．
　　The sun rises in the east．
　　He came home late every evening．（过去）
　　He sold shoes．
　　Truth will out．（will可表示总是要发生的事）
　　Children will be naughty．
　　He will read papers for hours．
　　He would work until midnight．（would表示过去的习惯）
　　She would wait until her husband returned．
　　He kept（on）talking with friends．（keep，keep on，go on等可表示一连串同样的动作，或一个持续的动作。）
　　It went on raining．
　　They continued to work（or working）．
　　She remained standing outside．
　　We went on，though it was dark．
　　The fire crackled．（后缀-le和-er表示一串短短的有时甚至笨拙的动作，这类动词也属反复体。）
　　Hens cackled．
　　The stars twinkled．
　　He lingered on the street．
　　The fish wriggled．
　　She prattled all day long．
　　It is no use haggling with him．
　　The flames flickered．
　　She frequently mutters something to herself．
　　Some butterflies flutted among flowers．
　　He loitered about this village．
　　He frittered away his money and time．
　　He pooh-poohed at me．（发出重复的声音）
　　1166 总之，对体有所了解，对掌握动词至关重要。当我们忽略动词的体时，我们就难以确切表达我们的意思。一般来说，我们用一般体动词表示动词的全过程。我们注意力在动作的开始时，我们应当用起始体，仿佛是一个近镜头。在我们注意动词的结束时，我们要用终结体，也像一个近镜头。当我们表示一连串的同样的动作时，我们要用反复体。
　　B．可能形式，进行形式和完成形式中的体
　　1167 上面讨论的一般形式的4个体，可以变为可能形式，进行形式和完成形式的4个体。因此总共有16个体。
　　1168 1．当我们要表示一个可能发生但并未真正发生的动作时，我们可使用可能形式（Potential Form），在主要动词前加某些助动词。将来时（由shall，will，be to，be going to，be about to等构成）都属于可能体（Potential Aspect）。
　　一般可能体：He may come tomorrow．He must be there．
　　起始可能体：We shall begin to learn Japanese next week．
　　They will enter into negotiation．
　　终结可能体：I have to finish reading it soon．
　　I can eat up all these oranges．
　　反复可能体：You need not tell it again and again．
　　I should not linger here long．
　　1169 2．当我们想表示在某个时刻正在进行的动作，或表达某种程度的情绪而加以生动描绘时，我们使用进行形式（Con-tinuous Form）：
　　一般进行体：
　　I am writing a letter now．She is watching TV．I was walking along when it began to rain．They were eating You were speaking to an ass．We were waiting for bus- es．
　　He is smoking．
　　He hates me．I know it．It means a lot，This belongs to Mary．He has a cat．The situation continues tense．
　　David，aged 43，remains single．The fish stays fresh，We are happy．It tastes sour．（这里的斜体动词不是进行时，它们表示的状态却是可以延续的。）
　　David was in the act（or the middle） of stealing it when he was detected．
　　Our plan is in progress（or full operation）．
　　The production of steel is on the increase（or the de-cline）．
　　Preparations for the journey are under way（or consid-eration）．
　　He is under treatment（or investigation）．
　　（一些由in，on和under引起的短语，表示正在进行的动作。）
　　起始进行体：
　　We were winning．I was leaving this city．The flowers are opening．His fame is vanishing．Mary was dying．
　　They were coming to terms．They were arriving at ourtown now．He is becoming insane．He is falling asleep．
　　The crop is ripening．I’m losing my best friends．注：起始进行体常常表示旧动作快完新动作开始。如：
　　Mary was dying．实际上表示她将死而未死。又如：We were winning．实际上等于说We were about to win．但实际上未曾胜利。有时也可以表示一个反复发生的动作，如：Many grenades are exploding this month．He was reminding me all the morning．都表示多次反复的动作。
　　终结进行体：
　　He is going to rack and ruin．He is sinking into oblivion．
　　I am giving up smoking．The river was drying up．The fire was burning itself out．He was sitting out the play．
　　The clock is running down．He was coming to an untime-ly death．She was growing to be a lovely girl．
　　I gave up smoking．（一般终结体）我已戒烟了。但I wasgiving up smoking．（终结进行体）我快要戒烟了，但未戒。
　　反复进行体：
　　He is singing and singing．He was telling me over and over again．He was getting sick from time to time． Hewas always（or for ever）thinking of himself．He is every day looking for some trouble．He is on all occasions prais-ing himself．He was constantly trying to make money．
　　（这种进行形式常常带有always或其他类似的词，除表示反复发生外，还带有一定程度的情绪。）
　　1170 3．当我们想表示一个已完成动作的影响或后果时，我们需用完成形式（Perfect Form）：
　　一般完成体：
　　I have read this book．（=I understand it now．）
　　He has been married．（=He has a family now．）
　　He has not slept well．（=He is sleepy．）
　　He had studied French．（=He knew French．）
　　He had not eaten anything．（=He was hungry．）
　　起始完成体（=一般进行体）：
　　He has begun to learn（=is learning）English．He has gone to bed（=is sleeping）．The law has come into force （=is being enforced）．Mary had arrived（=was stay-ing）here．He had started the machine going（=The ma-chine was going）．He had left London（=He was awayfrom London）．
　　注1：（一般完成体使用时，句中可有一个表示一段时间的状语。
　　I have studied this matter for three days．He has notslept well during the last ten days．He had not eatenanything since three days ago．
　　但用起始完成体的句子却不能带这种状语，因为短时动词不宜配合长时状语：
　　I have lost it for three days．He has not fallen asleepduring the last ten days．（错句）
　　I have go married for ten years．（错句）
　　I have been married for ten years．（正确）
　　I got married ten years ago．（正确）
　　I have put on this shirt for three days．（错句）
　　I have worn this shirt for three days．（正确）
　　I put on this shirt three days ago．（正确）
　　I have arrived here for five months．（错句）
　　I have been here for five months．（正确）
　　I arrived here five months ago．（正确）
　　I have left my native country for thirty years．（错句）
　　I have been away from my native country for thirtyyears．（正确）
　　I left my native country thirty years ago．（正确）
　　We have won the second world war for over forty years．（错句）
　　We won the second world war over forty years ago．（正确）
　　He has died for five years．（错句）
　　He died five years ago．（正确）
　　He has opened this store for many years．（错句）
　　He has run this store for many years．（正确）
　　He opened this store many years ago．（正确）
　　注2：完成形式有时可表示反复发生的动作，这时也可用一个表示一段时间的状语。
　　He has told me（=has told me several times）the samestory since a month ago．
　　I have written（=have written many times）to her for many years．
　　My classmates and I have received（=have often received）letters from her for the past year．
　　He has lost money in gambling since 1968．
　　终结完成体：
　　He has finished writing the book．
　　John has given up smoking cigar．The clock had run down．He had gone to Heaven．All efforts had gone to nothing．
　　注：在用这个形式时不能用表示一段时间的状语：
　　The clock has run down for a long time．（错句）
　　The clock ran down a long time ago．（正确）
　　He has finished his lunch for twenty minutes．（错句）
　　He finished his lunch twenty minutes ago．（正确）
　　John has given up smoking for eight months．（错句）
　　John gave up smoking eight months ago．（正确）
　　He has smoked no more for the past eight months．（正确）
　　反复完成体：
　　He has said and said it again．I have told you over andover again．I had tried，tried and tried，but finallyfailed．I have been accustomed to smoking．
　　1171 上面谈到的16种形式，每种都是两个体的组合。此外还可有以3个体的组合，如have been teaching（一般完成进行体），must have died（可能完成起始体），will be grumbling（可能反复进行体）。由于它们的含义可以从16个体中推想出来，没有必要对它们作详细讨论。
　　C．非谓语动词的4个体
　　1172 非谓语动词和谓语动词一样，也有4个体：
　　He works（一般体）hard．（谓语动词）
　　He seems to work（一般体）hard．（不定式）
　　He is used to working（一般体）hard．（动名词）
　　A man working（一般体）hard can never be starved．（分词）
　　He lost（起始体）his job．（谓语动词）
　　I don‘t want to lose（起始体）my job．（不定式）
　　I was shocked at the news of his losing（起始体） his job．（动名词）
　　Losing（起始体）his job，he cannot maintain his family anymore．（分词）
　　He finished（终结体）reading it last Sunday．（谓语动词）
　　I hope to finish reading it by next Sunday．（非谓语动词）
　　He worked，worked and worked（反复体）till he died．（谓语动词）
　　To work and work（反复体）till we die is our destiny．（非谓语动词）
　　1173 和谓语动词一样，非谓语动词也有可能、进行与完成形式，意义几乎相同。详见有关非谓语动词各章。
　　D．表动作名词的体
　　1174 和谓语动词一样，表示动作的名词也可有它们特殊的体：
　　一般体：
　　education，establishment，study，manufacture，knowledge，murder
　　起始体：
　　departure，disappearance，change，loss，birth，arrival，real-ization
　　反复体：
　　repetition，reiteration，revival，redistribution，mutter，flut-ter，giggle，twinkle
　　E．结束语
　　1175 最后研究一下下面这段短文，看看各个动作完成的程度可能是很有意思的。（1）表示动作发生以前，（2）表示动作开始，（3）表示动作正在进行，（4）表示动作结束，（5）表示动作结束之后：
　　It was declared on January 15，1968 that they（1）wouldbuild a bridge at this village．
　　They actually（2）started building it on February 1．
　　I saw that they（2）＋（3）had started building it when Ipassed through the village on February 3．
　　They（3）were building it briskly and energetlcally until De-cember．
　　They（4）finished building it on December 5．
　　They（4）＋（5）had just finished building it when I passedthrough the village again on December 8．
　　The bridge looked magnificent；they built（一般体）it at anenormous cost．
　　Now they（5）had built a bridge across the river．
　　So men and cars did not have to wait for ferry-boats any more；they could cross the river any time．
　　Ⅴ．5大类动词
　　A．5类动词的定义
　　1176 动词可以根据它是否有宾语或表语分为5类（可参阅33 1-7）。这种区分，不仅适用于谓语动词，也适用于非谓语动词。
　　1177 后面不跟宾语和补语的动词称为不及物动词：
　　谓语动词 非谓语动词
　　John came． I saw John coming．
　　Mary died yesterday． Mary is said to have died yesterday．
　　Many people sang in the yard． I found many people singing in the yard．
　　I slept soundly． I want to sleep．
　　1178 有宾语的动词称为及物动词：
　　谓语动词 非谓语动词
　　He visited Hong Kong． I am about to visit Hong Kong．
　　I know him very well． I should be glad to know him．
　　They speak English． They are learning to speak English．
　　She wrote a letter． She dislikes writing any letter．
　　1179 后面跟两个宾语（即间接宾语和直接宾语）的动词称双宾动词，间接宾语多指人，直接宾语多指“物”：
　　谓语动词 非谓语动词
　　He gave John a cat． I thanked him for giving
　　John a cat．
　　He teaches Chinese His job is to teach Chinese
　　students English． students English．
　　She cooked me rice． She went to the market
　　before cooking me rice．
　　They played Mary a trick． Their playing Mary a trick made me angry．
　　He asked us many questions． He is curious enough to ask　us so many questions．
　　They envied John his 　pretty wife． It is natural for them to envy John his pretty wife．
　　大多数间接宾语可改为介词短语，这时双宾动词变成及物动词：
　　He gave a cat to John．
　　He teaches English to Chinese students．
　　She cooked rice for me．
　　They played a trick on Mary．
　　（但asked后的us和envied后的John不能这样变）
　　1180 后面跟主语补语的动词称为系动词：
　　谓语动词 非谓语动词
　　He is a teacher． He wants to be a teacher．
　　Mary become a lawyer． One has to study many years
　　to become a lawayer．
　　She grew old． She is aware of herself growing old．
　　They kept silent． It is always good to keep silent．
　　1181 后面跟一个宾语及宾语补语的动词，称为宾补动词：
　　谓语动词 非谓语动词
　　Many people know him to be a spy． I am astonished at many people knowing him to　be a spy．
　　Many have heard this song sung． It is true for many people to　have heard this song sung．
　　I saw them coming． I was glad to see them coming．
　　She kept the house clean． I thank her for keeping the　house clean．
　　They chose John president． Have you heard of them　choosing John president？
　　They left me an orphan． They died leaving me an orphan．
　　They beat him black and blue． Beating him black and　blue，they threw him into　the ditch．
　　He taught me to be careful． It is good for him to teach　me to be careful．
　　I prepared the students to take the exam． Preparing the students to take the exam，I go to　school earlier than usual．
　　He encouraged me to try again． I remember him encouraging me to try again．
　　每一个句子等于把两个句子巧妙地结合起来，前面一句包含一个及物动词，第二个句子包含一个系动词。第一个句子的宾语同时是第二个句子的主语。上面的例句大致可解为下面样子：
　　Many people know him，and he is a spy．
　　Many have heard this song，and this song has been sung．
　　I saw them，and they were coming．
　　She kept the house，so the house remained clean．
　　They chose John，so John became president．
　　They left me，so I became an orphan．
　　They beat him，so he became black and blue．
　　He taught me，and I was to be careful．
　　I prepared the students，and the students were to take the exam．
　　He encouraged me，and I was to try again．
　　在某些情况下，宾语及宾语补语可以改为一个that引起的从句：
　　I think it easy．—I think that it is easy．
　　The circumstance decided him to study hard．—The circum- stance decided that he was to study hard．
　　They wish him dead．—They wish that he would be dead．
　　They reported seven planes shot down．—They reported that seven plsnes had been shot down．
　　I must see the work done．—I must see that the work be done．
　　B．不同类型动词的相互转换
　　1．各种类型的不及物动词
　　1182 a．多数动词在一个句子中可能是及物动词，而在另一句中又
　　可用作不及物动词：
　　作及物动词 作不及物动词
　　He can speak English． A dumb person cannot speak．
　　She was boiling water． The water is boiling．
　　We played tennis． Some children are playing in the garden．
　　I wrote three letters this morning． He cannot write though he can read．
　　1183 b．有些动词几乎只能用作不及物动词：
　　He came yesterday，but I was out．
　　He lay on the ground，crying and struggling．
　　He died many years ago．
　　Don’t laugh．It‘s something serious．
　　Don’t jump up and down．
　　He fell downstairs．
　　1184 c．有些动词通常用作及物动词，但用于一般意义，不说出宾语是什么时，它就成了不及物动词：
　　I never smoke（cigarettes，cigars，or any others）．
　　Though he has eyes，he does not see．
　　We must drink，we must eat．
　　This machine can cut，can pull，can raise．
　　He reads every night．
　　It is better to give than to receive．
　　To do is harder than to speak．
　　1185 d．有些动词通常作及物动词，如果按习惯用法宾语可以省略，它也就成了不及物动词：
　　He shrugged（his shoulders）．
　　She waved（her hand） to me．
　　I will leave（this place）tomorrow．
　　Wait．I will change（my clothes）．
　　The hen is laying（an egg）．
　　Write（letters）to me often．
　　Let me milk（the cow）．
　　Shut up（your mouth）．
　　A barking dog never bites（persons）．
　　He proposea（marriage） to her．
　　He drinks（liquor）almost every evening．
　　Kiss（each other）and be friends．
　　They loved and embraced（each other）．
　　We met（each other）every Sunday．
　　They married（each other）last year．
　　在非正式口语中，有时宾语可以省略：
　　The news is important，but nobody told （the news to） me．
　　Psychology is one of our main subjects，but the school has not taught（it to） us yet．
　　If I owe you anything，I will pay you（the debt）．
　　Don‘t tell me（the story）．I know（it）．
　　“You must be careful．I understand（I must be care-ful）．”
　　“You have wronged many friends．”“ I deny（what you say）．”
　　“The back gate jams．”“I can open（it）．”
　　1186 e．如果及物动词后面有作宾语的自身代词被省略，它也就成了不及物动词：
　　Keep（yourself）away from danger．
　　The child hid（himself）under the bed．
　　They are making（themselves）merry．
　　The mob dispersed（themselves）．
　　He turned（himself） to me．
　　Let us rest（ourselves） a few minutes．
　　The rock rolled（itself）down the mountain．
　　The bubble burst（itself）．
　　A scar showed（itself）on her face．
　　1187 f．有些及物动词，如果用来表示被动意义，也就成了不及物动词：
　　The books sell（＝are sold）well．
　　This cloth washes（＝is washed）easily．
　　The fish will not keep long．
　　The liquor drinks well．
　　The door won’t shut．
　　She photographs well．
　　What does a cat eat like？
　　These faults count for nothing．
　　This compares favourably with that．
　　The bridge is building（=is being built）．
　　Dinner is getting（＝is being got） ready．
　　Great events are preparing．
　　Some measures are taking．
　　The book is printing．
　　The house is completing．
　　1188 g．及物动词的被动语态也可以看作不及物动词，因为它后面既不跟宾语，也不跟表语（括号给出的是大致意思）：
　　He was killed（=died）．
　　The papers were blown（= flew）off．
　　He has been tormented（=suffered） for years．
　　She was astonished（=wondered）at your sudden refusal．
　　He was pleased（=rejoiced）to hear the news．
　　Don‘t be troubled（＝worry）．
　　The war will be ended（=end）next year．
　　He must be taught by（=learn from） a very strict teach- er．
　　1189 h．由及物动词和它的宾语构成的成语，也可看成不及物动词，因为它后面既不跟宾语，也不跟补语：
　　We have to give way（=yield）．
　　Lend an ear（＝listen）to me．
　　Our plan did not take shape（=materialize）．
　　This soldier won’t take orders（＝obey）．
　　Some accident took place（＝happened）．
　　Can I have a word（＝talk）with you？
　　She takes a good picture（＝photographs well）．
　　He has sown his wild oats（＝dissipated）for ten years．
　　Take your time（=Don‘t hurry）．
　　I exerted myself（＝endeavoured）to make more money．
　　He concealed himself（=hid） in the jungle．
　　He conducted himself（＝behaved）properly．
　　I washed myself（=bathed）every evening．
　　Don’t lose heart．
　　This habit has taken root in him．
　　He passed a remark about the ceremony．
　　1190 i．由“不及物动词＋介词＋名词”构成的成语也可看作不及物动词：
　　A steamer came into sight（=appeared）．
　　Business has come to a standstill（=stopped）．
　　He rose to his feet（=stood up）．
　　The glass fell into pieces（=broke）．
　　He came to himself（=revived）．
　　They fell on their knees（=knelt down）．
　　Everything is going to the bad（=declining．）
　　2．各种类型的及物动词
　　1191 a．有些动词只用作及物动词，很少或从不用作不及物动词：
　　I like milk．
　　He made a small boat．
　　He threw the rotten bananas into the garbage-can．
　　He painted his room．
　　We received the things John gave us．
　　I got the first prize．
　　We discussed many problems．
　　1192 b．有少数动词必须跟有自身代词作宾语：
　　He prided himself on his knowedge of zoology．
　　He absented himself from school．
　　They pledged themselves to support us．
　　Go and enjoy yourselves．
　　He conducted himself well．
　　Don‘t overeat（or overwork，oversleep）yourself．（在美国自身代词可以不用）
　　You must behave yourself．
　　He distinguished himself by his hard work．
　　1193 c．有些动词通常作不及物动词，如果用来表示“使……干某事”，则成为及物动词：
　　He flew a kite（=caused a kite to fly）．
　　He grew a lot of bananas（=caused a lot of bananas togrow）．
　　She bathed her child．
　　My boss worked me hard．
　　We dined our guests handsomely．
　　He walked his horse about．
　　She ran a needle into her finger．
　　The woodman fell the trees．
　　They starved our troops．
　　I will marry my girl to anyone who loves her truly．
　　He stood his umbrella against the wall．
　　He leaned his elbow on the desk．
　　He beat his hand against the desk．
　　He shot an arrow at us．
　　1194 d．有些动词通常作不及物动词，但在一些成语（习用语）中可成为及物动词：
　　We are talking business（or shop）．
　　Please talk sense．
　　He walked the boards when he was young．
　　She walked the streets at night．
　　He eagerly played knife and fork．
　　He ran errands for the firm．
　　He ran a risk of being killed．
　　Why don’t you go the whole hog and become a dancing-master？
　　Don”t come（＝act）the bully over me．
　　He will stand trial．
　　1195 e．有些动词通常作不及物动词，但在跟有同源宾语（与动词意思几乎相同的名词）时，可变为及物动词：
　　He lived a happy life．
　　He died a glorious death．
　　She smiled the smile of a fairy．
　　He dreamed a sweet dream．
　　He breathed his last（breath）just on his birthday．
　　He shouted his loudest（shout）．
　　He behaved his best on his wedding day．
　　1196 f．有些动词，通常作不及物动词，但在以某个动作表示某种意思时，可以成为及物动词：
　　He bowed his gratitude（＝expressed his gratitude bybowing）．
　　She smiled a welcome（=expressed a welcome by smil-ing）．
　　They shouted applause．
　　He looked his thanks．
　　He laughed his consent．
　　He waved good-bye to us．
　　He whistled a melody．
　　He nodded his approval．
　　1197 g．有些双宾动词的被动形式也可以看作是及物动词，特别是在表示人的宾语变成主语时，这时它有一个宾语（括号中给出了它们的大致意义）：
　　I was given（=got）a lot of praises．
　　He is taught（=studied）Malay．
　　I was shown（=saw）everything in the palace．
　　I was paid（=received）half of my salary．
　　I was served（=ate）only potatoes．
　　I was denied everything（=did not get anything）．
　　I was told（=learned）many things．
　　1198 h．有些由不及物动词和介词构成的短语，可以看作是及物动词，因为它们后面可跟有宾语：
　　They laughed at（derided）me．
　　We wish for（＝desire）something exciting．
　　They spoke about（=discuss）the situation after the war．
　　Let us look into（＝study）this case．
　　I started from（=left）Tokyo on January 16．
　　I looked for（=sought）a place where I could live inpeace．
　　下面i，j，k，l和m中的成语可以看作及物动词，因为它们后面都可以跟有宾语。
　　1199 i．由“及物动词＋地点副词”构成的成语也可看作及物动词：
　　We passed over（=ignored）all the details．
　　He gave up（=abandoned）the plan of selling monkeys．
　　I put off（=delayed）visiting the doctor．
　　I have handed in（or sent in）（＝tendered）my resigna-tion．
　　He has to leave off（=stop）doing evil．
　　1200 j．由“不及物动词+地点副词+介词”构成的成语也可看作及物动词：
　　They stood up for（=supported）John as their leader．I looked back on（=contemplated） the past．
　　I have gone through with（=finished） your novel．Turn aside from（=Avoid） evil．
　　They look down upon（＝despise） poor people．We look up to（=respect） scholars．
　　What do you go in for（= want）？
　　1201 k．由“及物动词+名词+介词”构成的成语也可看作及物动词：
　　He takes no notice of（=neglects） my warning．He gave examples of（＝exemplify）the use of the articles．
　　He gave an account of（=related） his adventure．They put confidence in（=trust）nobody．
　　He took sides with（=favoured） our party．
　　The play caught the fancy of（=attracted）the public．I availed myself of（=accepted） his invitation．He engaged himself to（=served） a jeweller．Help yourself to（=Eat） the pork．
　　1202 1．由“系动词+形容词（或分词）+介词”构成的成语也可看作及物动词：
　　He is fond of（=likes）coffee．
　　I am sorry for（=regret）my mistake．
　　Mathematics is interesting to（=interests） me．This dress is suitable for（=becomes）her．
　　A man in this country is similar to（=resembles）any manin any other country．
　　They are void of（=lack） sympathy．
　　1203 m．由“系动词+介词+名词+介词”构成的成语也可看成及物动词：
　　He is at a loss for（=lacks）words to express his grati－tude．
　　He is in fear of（=dreads）debt．
　　He is at odds with his brother．
　　We are at peace with them．
　　3．系动词的另一种形式
　　1204 宾补动词的被动语态可以看作是系动词，因为随着语态的改变，宾语的补语可变成主语的补语，同时这类句子可以看成是两个句子的结合体（可参阅1180）：
　　The floor was swept clean．（=The floor was swept and it bcame clean．）
　　John was chosen president．（＝John was chosen and he be－ came president．）
　　I was left an orphan．（=I was left [alone] and I became an orphan．）
　　He was beaten black and blue．（=He was beaten and he be－ came black and blue．）
　　He was advised to work hard．（=He was advised and he was to work hard．）
　　He was taught to be careful．（=He was taught and he was to be careful．）
　　The rumour was found false．（=The rumour was found and it proved false．）
　　The enemy was seen coming．（=The enemy was seen and hewas coming．）
　　4．各种类型的宾补动词
　　1205 a．不及物动词有时可用作宾补动词，此时后面跟有一个自身代词，及形容词（或介词短语）表示谓语动词所表示动作的结果：
　　He slept himself sober．（=He slept so much that he be－ came sober．）
　　She cried herself blind．
　　We walked ourselves lame．
　　He laughed himself red in the face．
　　I talked myself hoarse．
　　I ran myself out of breath．（=I ran so much that I be－ came out of breath．）
　　I laughed myself into fits．
　　We worked ourselves into illness．
　　1206 b．由一个不及物动词和一介词构成的成语有时可被看作是一个宾补动词，因为它不仅有宾语，还有宾语补语：
　　He signalled to（=signed）me to take a seat．
　　We appealed to（=requested） the government to help us．
　　We rely upon（= require） him to supply us with all neces－saries．
　　Everyone longs for（=desires） the nation to be free frompolitical disturbances．
　　I prevailed upon（=persuaded） her to marry me．
　　Ⅵ．动词的两种语态
　　A．主动语态及被动词态的形式与意义
　　1207 下面两句话意思几乎相同：
　　在第一句中，动词speaks表示主语John是动作的执行者，这时就说它为主动语态（Active Voice）。第二句中的谓语 is spoken表示主语 English是动作的承受者，因此就说它处于被动语态（Passive Voice）。
　　当主动结构的句子变为被动结构的句子时，有3个成分受到影响：主动语态的动词（如speaks）成为被动语态的动词： be+过去分词（如is spoken）；主动结构中的宾语（如第一句中的English）成为被动结构中的主语（如第二句中的English）；主动结构中的主语（如第一句中的John）变成被动结构句子中by的宾语（如第二句中的John）。
　　下面是几对主动结构和被动结构的句子：
　　1．Columbus discovered America．（主动）
　　2．America was discovered by Columbus．（被动）
　　1．The cat has eaten the fish．（主动）
　　2．The fish has been eaten by the cat．（被动）
　　1．Some one of us will do it．（主动）
　　2．It will be done by some one of us．（被动）
　　不过，由于被动语态的主要作用是不提主动结构句子中的主语（其理由下面再谈），因此在变为被动结构之后，由by 引起的短语常不出现。例如，我们说 English isspoken in England．而不说 English is spoken in Englandby them 。
　　从以上所说看来，He teaches和 He is taught是不同的，而John murdered和John was murdered也是不同的。
　　B．哪些动词可变为被动语态
　　1208 不是所有动词都可从主动语态变为被动语态的。在五类动词中，只有及物动词、双宾动词和宾补动词可以变为被动语态，不及物动词及系动词不能变成被动语态：
　　及物动词
　　He writes many letters every day．
　　Many letters are written every day．
　　They import a great deal of rice．
　　A great deal of rice is imported．
　　双宾动词（由主动变被动有几种方式）：
　　They send us magazines from time to time．
　　Magazines are sent（to） us from time to time．
　　We are sent magazines from time to time．
　　We have magazines sent（to） us from time to time．（这是表示被动语态的另一种方式）
　　Teachers teach my class many subjects．
　　My class is taught many subjects．
　　Many subjects are taught（to） my class．
　　My class has many subjects taught（to） it．
　　宾补动词
　　People call him Fatty．
　　He is called Fatty．
　　They asked Mary to be careful．
　　Mary was asked to be careful．
　　有些动词尽管是及物动词，却不能变为被动语态，因为它们大多表示状态：
　　This new dress becomes her．（不能说 She is become by thisnew dress．）
　　This chair costs me twenty dollars．
　　Her work deserves the first prize．
　　This bulb doesn‘t fit my lamp．
　　Tom has a big house．
　　This box holds only a few articles．
　　We lack courage and patience．
　　Nobody resembles anybody else in face or in mind．
　　另一些及物动词跟有特殊的宾语，也不能变为被动语态：
　　He shouted his loudest．（不能说His loudest is shouted．）
　　He breathed his last．
　　She nodded her approval．
　　I smiled my thanks．
　　She praised herself．
　　He ruined himself．
　　He wishes to be somebody．
　　He enjoys taking pictures．
　　另一方面有些动词常用于被动语态：
　　She is said to be a movie star．（不能说 They say her to be，etc．）
　　Newton is known as a great physicist．
　　Davy is reputed to be the best doctor in this small town．
　　C．各种动词形式的主动与被动语态
　　1209 下表表示了各种动词形式的主动与被动语态
　　1．谓语动词（陈述语气）：
　　主动语态 被动语态
　　一般现在时 —— She teaches me （or you，him，them）． I am（ or you are，He is，They are） taught．
　　现在完成时 —— She has taught me（ or you，him，them）． been taught；He has been taught．
　　现在进行时 —— She is teaching me（ or you，him，them）． I am（ or You are，He is，They are）being taught．
　　一般过去时 —— She taught me （or you，him，them）． I was（ or You were， He was，They were） taught．
　　过去完成时 —— She had taught me（ or you，him，them）． I（or You，He，They） had been taught．
　　过去进行时 —— She was teaching me（or you，him，them）． I was（or You were， He was，They were） being taught．
　　一般将来时 —— She will teach me（or you，him，them）． I shall（or You will， He will，They will）be taught．
　　将来完成时 —— She will have taught me（oryou，him，them）． I shall（ or You will， He will，They will） have been taught．
　　将来进行时 —— She will be teaching me（or you，him，them）． I shall（or You will，He will，They will）be being taught．
　　2．谓语动词（虚拟语气）
　　一般主动 一般被动 进行主动 进行被动
　　现在虚拟语气 He writes it． It be written． He be writing it． It be being written．
　　过去虚拟语气 He wrote it． It were written． He were writing it． It were being written
　　将来虚拟语气 He should write it． It should be written． He should be writing it．
　　过去完成虚拟语气 He had written it． It had been written． He had been writing it．
　　将来完成虚拟语气 He should have written it． It should have been written． He should have been writing．
　　条件句中主句的谓语形式
　　主动 被动
　　一般时 I should（ or would，could，might） do it． It would（or could，might）be done．
　　完成时 I should（ or would，could，might）have done it It would（or could，might） have been done．
　　3．非谓语动词：不定式
　　主动 被动
　　一般 to write to be written
　　进行 to be writing
　　完成 to have written to have been written
　　4．非谓语动词：分词
　　主动 被动
　　现在 writing being written
　　过去 written
　　完成 having written having been written
　　5．非谓语动词：动名词
　　主动 被动
　　现在 writing being written
　　完成 having written having been written
　　D．表示动作或状态的被动语态
　　1210 被动语态不仅可表示动作，也可表示状态。在表示状态时，助动词be 接近一个完全动词，而过去分词起形容词的作用：
　　The house was painted（动作） yesterday．
　　The house was beautifully painted（=had been beautifully painted）（状态）．
　　The store was closed（动作） at six every day．
　　The store was closed（=had been closed）（状态） when Ipassed by at night．
　　The glass was broken（动作） by his naughty child．
　　The glass is broken（=has been broken）（状态）．
　　Throw it away．
　　The village was deserted（=was abandoned） just before theenemy came．
　　The village was quite deserted（=empty）．
　　The child is dressed by his sister every evening．He is well-dressed．
　　His works will be preserved by his wife．
　　None of his works are preserved（＝extant）．
　　Dinner is prepared by mother．
　　I am prepared（=ready） to start．
　　She was married by her uncle．
　　She is married（=not single）．
　　A new government is being established．（进行时一般都表示动作）
　　This usage is now firmly established．
　　The fish was eaten by the cat．
　　The fish has been eaten by the cat．（完成时常表示状态）
　　Do you know when the key was lost？
　　I don’t know． I found that it was lost when I arrived home．
　　His future is ruined by Mary．
　　He is bankrupt and ruined．
　　He got killed （or shot，bitten，punished，used to it）．（“got+过去分词”通常表示动作或动作的开始，这一点比用be 时更清楚，但只是用在口语中。）
　　I was astonished（or delighted） by his remarks．
　　I was astonished at，and delighted（状态） with，his remarks．（表示情绪的分词用作形容词的可能性最大，通常表示状态，除非后面跟一个由by 引起的短语。）
　　He is worried（=sad），delighted（= happy），irritated（=angry），puzzled（=all at sea）
　　E．什么时侯使用被动语态
　　1211 除非有特殊理由，一般不要用被动语态。先观察下面四组例句：
　　1．a．A salesgirl called Mary sold it for twenty cents．
　　Some teachers teach French in this school．
　　People are building a bridge across this river．
　　They speak Spanish in Cuba．
　　b．The doctor gave me an injection of vitamins．
　　The thief stole all her clothing．
　　The police arrested John and sent him to prison．
　　c．You stole my diamond．
　　My uncle killed a rich widow in her bathroom．
　　The principal has mismanaged the school．
　　John ruined her future．
　　d．Someone left a purse behind．
　　A man，whose name I forget，introduced this methodinto our country in 1950．
　　在第a类句子中，主语不起太大作用，听话的人或读者对他们不感兴趣。第b类句子中主语不说也可以猜出。第c类句子中的主语不说出可能更明智。第d类句子的主语，说话人和听话人可能都不清楚。在这种情况下，最好把宾语变成主语，把主动语态变为被动语态：
　　a．It was sold for twenty cents．
　　French is taught in this school．
　　A bridge is being built across this river．
　　Spanish is spoken in Cuba．
　　b．I was given an injection of vitamins．
　　All her clothing was stolen．
　　John was arrested and sent to prison．
　　c．My diamond was stolen．
　　A rich widow was killed in her bathroom．
　　The school has been mismanaged．
　　Her future is ruined．
　　d．A purse was left behind．
　　This method was introduced into our country in 1950．
　　被动语态可以用来避免提到主语，也可用来对主语加以强调，即把主语变为by的宾语，并放到句子末尾：
　　2．Edison invented the electric light．（不强调任何词）
　　The electric light was invented by Edison（受到强调）．
　　Columbus discovered America．（不强调任何词）
　　America was discovered by Columbus（受到强调）．
　　Shakespeare worte Hamlet．
　　Hamlet was written by Shakespeare．
　　Everyone commits this mistake．
　　This mistake is committed by everyone．
　　反过来说，把句子由主动结构变为被动结构，可对原来的宾语加以强调，成为主语：
　　3．He spent three million dollars in an evening．（不强调任何词）
　　Three million dollars was spent in an evening．（强调主语）
　　In this city they are building the largest restaurant in all theworld．（不强调任何词）
　　The largest restaurant in all the world is being built in thiscity．（强调主语）
　　使用被动结构还可避免在并列句中改变主语：
　　4．He asked some passers－by and was told（不必变为theytold him） he should turn to the right．
　　He asked for her hand，but was laughed at（以此代替shelaughed at him）．
　　He respects others and is respectd（以此代替 others respecthim）．
　　We must defeat them or be defeated（以此代替they mustdefeat us）．
　　F．被动语态相当于不及物动词的情况
　　1212 某些动词的被动语态和一个不及物动词意思差不多：The river was frozen（=froze） in winter．
　　She was dressed（=dressed） beautifully．
　　The ceremony was begun（=began） at 9 a．m．
　　The house was burned（=burned） for three hours．
　　The cloth has been worn（=has worn） thin．
　　They were married（=married） in 1950．
　　It was dried（=dried）．
　　Some of the dry leaves were blown（＝blew）into my house．
　　The boat was upset（=upset．）
　　The plan was worked out（=worked out） with little success．
　　Their project was developed（=developed） very slowly．
　　Mary were starved（＝starved）．
　　She was graduated（=graduated） three years ago．
　　The merchandise was sold out（=sold out） in an hour．
　　Many English words are derived（=derive） from Latin．
　　All the passengers were drowned（=drowned）．
　　The rumour was traced（=traced） back to a trivial incident．
　　The eggs will be hatched（=hatch） very soon．
　　G．被动语态相当于“主动语态+自身代词”的情况
　　1213 某些动词的被动语态，和“主动语态+自身代词”的意义几乎相同，主语可以指人也可指物：
　　Many secrets were discovered（= discovered themselves）．
　　My idea was conveyed（＝conveyed itself） to them withease．
　　The candle was burned（=burned itself） out at midnight．
　　The problem was resolved（=resolved itself） into nothing．
　　The matter was settled（＝settled itself） at once．
　　All his efforts have been wasted（=wasted themselves）away．
　　The news was communicated to every reader．
　　Her face was bathed in tears．
　　His strength and patience has been exhausted．
　　In twenty years the population of this city was doubled．
　　He was enrolled（＝enrolled himself） in the army．
　　He was associated（＝associated himself） with drug deal－ers．
　　I can‘t be persuaded（= persuade myself） of his honesty．
　　I can’t be assured of his readiness to help．
　　We have been refreshed with a warm bath．
　　He has been satisfied of the truth of his statement．
　　He has to be accustomed to this hard life．
　　One must be reconciled to one‘s fate．
　　He is worried about her．
　　He wants to be revenged on the murderer．
　　H．另一种被动形式：
　　Have（或Get）+名词（代词）+过去分词
　　1214 “have+名词（代词）+过去分词”是另一种被动形式，但其意思和“be+过去分词”有些差别。试比较下面3种类型句中的这两种被动形式：
　　1． He wrote（及物动词） a letter．（他自己写）
　　A letter was written．（谁写的未说出）
　　He had a letter written．（他请别人写的）
　　John repaired（及物动词） a watch．—A watch was re－paired． —John had a watch repaired．
　　2．They handed（双宾动词） him（间接宾语） a note（直接宾语）．—A note（主语，原句中的直接宾语） was hand－ed（to） him．—He（主语，原句中的间接宾语）was handed a note．—He had a note handed（to） him．（比上句好）
　　They played（双宾动词） John a trick．—A trick wasplayed on John．—John had a trick played on him．（比John was played a trick．好）
　　3． They said（及物动词） something for（介词） John．—So－mething was said for John．—They（主语，也是原句中的主语） had something said for John．John（主语，原句中介词的宾语） had something said for him．
　　John sent a letter to Mary．—A letter was sent to Mary．—
　　John had a letter sent to Mary．—Mary had a letter sentto her．
　　也可用get代替have：
　　John got（=had） a letter written．（ get和have都含有让别人做某事的意思）
　　I got（=had） my clothes washed．
　　She got（=had） her dress made ．
　　John had（不能说 got） his watch stolen．（＝John’swatch was stolen．）（have 还可表示遭遇其事的意思，get则只能表示“要某人做某事”。手表被偷不是他的主观意图。）
　　The criminal had（不能说 got） his head cut off．
　　（比较： The judge got the criminal punished．）
　　Ⅰ．带主动意思的被动形式
　　1215 有些被动形式有主动意思：
　　He is delighted（＝joyful），satisfied（＝content），exasperat－ ed（=angry），worried（＝sad），dejected（＝sorrowful），distracted（=mad），animated（=cheerful），disheartened （＝gloomy）．（多数表示情绪动词的被动形式都有主动意思）
　　He is exhausted（＝weary），married（＝not single），pinched （=poor），reserved（=modest），puffed－up（＝vain），unrestrained（=free），untrained（=ignorant），distin－ guished（＝famous）．It is untarnished（=clean），un－touched（=intact），untrodden（=pathless），unsettled （=unstable），deserted（＝lonely），complicated（=not simple），burnished（＝bright）．（表示状态的被动形式没有被动意思或只有少许被动意思）
　　J．带被动意思的主动形式
　　1216 另一方面有些主动形式却有被动意思：
　　1．谓语动词：
　　The secret discovered itself（=was discovered）．（参阅1213）
　　The matter settled itself（=was settled） at once．Don‘t worry yourself（=be worried）．
　　His energy has exhausted itself（=been exhausted）．The plan worked out（=was worked out） with success．（参阅1212）
　　School will open（=be opened） next week．
　　The project developed （=was developed） slowly．
　　A candle burned（=was burned） in the corner．
　　The book reads well．
　　This article sells well．
　　The cloth wears well．
　　How does the house let？
　　The door won’t lock．
　　The house is building．
　　The cow is milking．
　　My work is finishing．
　　2．非谓语动词：
　　There‘ s nothing to buy（=to be bought）．
　　There’s not a moment to lose．
　　There is some work to finish．
　　There are many lawyers to apply to．
　　The child wants spanking（＝to be spanked）．
　　The story won‘t bear retelling．
　　The composition needs correcting．
　　This house requires repairing．
　　This novel is worth reading．
　　3．形容词、介词短语和名词也可有被动意义：
　　The book is readable（=may be read）．（后缀-able和-ble有被动意义）
　　The root of this plant is eatable（=may be eaten）．
　　This theory is not defensible（=cannot be defended）．
　　No trees are visible（=can be seen） in the desert．
　　The matter is still in dispute（=being disputed）．
　　（有些介词短语有被动意义）
　　The bridge is in process（or course） of construction（=being constructed）．
　　Rice is in great demand（=greatly demanded）．
　　I am in his employ（＝employed by him）．
　　The plan is under contemplation （=being contemplat－ed）．
　　The house is under repair．
　　The problem is under discussion（or under investiga－tion）．
　　可以把下面各对句子加以比较：
　　This rich man is in possession of（＝owns） a large garden．
　　The large garden is in the possession of（＝is owned by）a rich man．
　　Miss White is in charge of this library．
　　The library is in（or under） the charge of Miss White．
　　General Dong is in command of the Second Division．
　　The Second Division is under（the） command of Gen－eral Dong．
　　Our army is in control of the city．
　　The city is in（or under） the control of our army．
　　Few know about his ill-treatment，punishment，anddemotion（=being ill－treated，being punished，and beingdemoted）．（有些表示动作的名词可有被动意义）
　　He came to my aid（or assistance，rescue）．（＝I was aid-ed，assisted，rescued．）
　　K．非谓语动词的被动形式
　　1217 本章所给都是谓语动词的例子（ 两段除外），适合谓语动词有关语态的规律，也同样适用于非谓语动词，尽管有时有些细微差别。
　　1218 1．就谓语动词而言，被动动词所表示动作的承受者必然是句子主语：
　　This“continent” was discovered by Columbus．
　　That“man” will be punished．
　　“He” is interested in learning new things．
　　“John” will be questioned．
　　“I”shall be examined again．
　　但就非谓语动词而言，被动动词所表示动作的承受者可能是起形容词作用的分词或不定式所修饰的主体词：
　　This is the“continent” discovered by Columbus．
　　The“man” to be punished is gone． I want “him” to be ar－ rested．
　　“His”being interested in gardening is unknown to me． It’s no use“for John”to be questioned．
　　也可以是句子的主语：
　　“I”am willing to be examined again．
　　“I”avoided being examined again．
　　也可能不说出来：
　　To be promoted is the result of many years of effort． Being insulted is worse than being killed．
　　1219 2．用于被动语态的谓语动词可以是（1）及物动词，（2）双宾动词或（3）宾补动词：
　　（1）Many letters are written every day．
　　The case is being studied．
　　（2）The flowers are sent her by her lover．
　　The books were given her by her uncle．
　　（3）Mary is advised to talk less．
　　The city is always kept clean．
　　非谓语动词也如此：
　　（1）There are many letters to be written．
　　The case heing studied concerns drug-smuggling．
　　（2）The flowers sent her are beautiful．
　　The books given her by her uncles were novels．
　　（3）Being advised to talk less，Mary keeps silent while we talk．
　　The city，to be always kept clean，has a thousand workmen to do the job．
　　1220 3．用于被动语态的谓语动词可表示动作或状态：The enemy was surrounded（动作）by our troops yester- day．
　　The city is surrounded（状态）by trees．
　　非谓语动词也如此：
　　The enemy，surrounded（动作）by our troops yesterday，surrendered this morning．
　　The city，surrounded（状态）by trees，looks extremely beautiful．
　　1221 4．在谓语动词用于被动结构时，by引起的短语常常由于某些原因不说出：
　　The watch was stolen（by John）．
　　非谓语动词也如此：
　　The watch stolen（by John）cost fifty dollars．
　　1222 5．谓语动词的被动语态相当于一个不及物动词或相当于“及物动词+自身代词”：
　　The ceremony was begun（=began）at 8：00 a． m．
　　His patience has been exhausted（=exhausted itself）．
　　非谓语动词也如此：
　　Begun（=beginning）at 8：00 a．m．，the ceremony is a great event in this small village．
　　Having been exhausted（=exhausted itself），his patience changed to recklessness．
　　1223 6．谓语动词还有另一种表示被动意思的方式：
　　He got his house repaired every year．
　　非谓语动词也如此：
　　He talked with masons about getting his house repaired．}