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3秒自动关闭窗口From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Christmas or Christmas Day (: Crīstesmaesse, meaning "'s ") is an annual festival commemorating
of , observed most commonly on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A
central to the
, it is prepared for by the season of
and initiates the season of , which historically in the West lasts in some traditions, Christmastide includes an . The traditional Christmas narrative, the , delineated in the
says that Jesus was born in , when
arrived in the city, the inn had no room and so they were offered a
was soon born, with
proclaiming this news to shepherds who then disseminated the message furthermore. Christmas Day is a public
in , is celebrated religiously by the vast majority of Christians, as well as culturally by a number of non-Christian people, and is an integral part of the , while some Christian groups reject the celebration. In several countries, celebrating
on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family.
Although the month and date of Jesus' birth are unknown, by the early-to-mid fourth century the
had placed Christmas on December 25, a date that was later adopted in the East. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the , which has been adopted almost universally in the
used in countries throughout the world. However, some
celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older , which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar, the day after the Western Christian Church celebrates the . This is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. In the
of 567, the Church, with its desire to be universal, "declared the
between Christmas and Epiphany to be one ", thus giving significance to both the Western and Eastern dates of Christmas. Moreover, for Christians, the belief that
came into the world in the
of humanity, rather than the exact birth date, is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.
Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, there are several factors that may have influenced the choice. December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse. The date is exactly nine months following , when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. Other scholars disagree with this claim and state that the Roman Emperor
placed a pagan celebration on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date.
The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of , Christian, and
themes and origins. Popular modern customs of the holiday include , completing an
and , lighting a , viewing a , an exchange of , , a , and the display of various , including , , , , , , and . In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as , , , and , are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of
and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. The economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world.
"Christmas" is a shortened form of "'s ". It is derived from the
Cristemasse, which is from
Crīstesmaesse, a phrase first recorded in 1038 followed by the word Cristes-messe in 1131. Crīst ( Crīstes) is from Greek Khrīstos (Χριστ??), a translation of
Mā??a? (????????), "", meaning "anointed"; and maesse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the . The form Christenmas was also historically used, but is now considered a it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, literally "Christian mass".
is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter
(Χ) in Greek Khrīstos (Χριστ??), "Christ", though numerous it has precedent in Middle English Χρ?es masse (where "Χρ?" is an abbreviation for Χριστ??).
In addition to "Christmas", the holiday has been known by various other names throughout its history. The
referred to the feast as "midwinter", or, more rarely, as Nātiuite? (from
nātīvitās below). "", meaning "birth", is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola () referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas. "Noel" (or "Nowel") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French no?l or na?l, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning "birth (day)".
Gospel according to Saint Luke Chapter 2, v 1–20
Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of
of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in
in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from
to Bethlehem for the census, and Jesus is born there and laid in a manger. It says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi
to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the .
orders the
less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth.
of the birth of Christ by , 15th century
Nativity of Christ – medieval illustration from the
(12th century)
The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels and early Christian writers suggested various dates for the anniversary. The first recorded Christmas celebration was in
in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, but was overshadowed by Epiphany in the early Middle Ages. The feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day. Associating it with drunkenness and other misbehavior, the Puritans banned Christmas. It was restored as a legal holiday in 1660, but remained disreputable. In the early 19th century, Christmas was revived with the start of the
in the Anglican Church, which ushered in "the development of richer and more symbolic forms of worship, the building of neo-Gothic churches, and the revival and increasing centrality of the keeping of Christmas itself as a Christian festival" as well as "special charities for the poor" in addition to "special services and musical events".
and other writers helped in this revival of the holiday by "changing consciousness of Christmas and the way in which it was celebrated" as they emphasized family, religion, gift-giving, and social reconciliation as opposed to the historic revelry common in some places.
Outdoor Christmas decoration
The early church was concerned with the death, resurrection and life of Christ. They essentially ignored the birth of Christ until
asserted that Christ did not have a physical body. To assist in combating what the church considered heresy, the Roman church established a date to celebrate Christ's birth, sometime in the 4th century. Other Christian churches had done so or would do within a century. The church's assertion of a physical body was also supported by the celebration of the , established around the same time.
In the 3rd century, the date of birth of Jesus was the subject of both great interest and great uncertainly. Around AD 200,
There are those who have determined not only the year of our Lord's birth, and they say that it took place in the 28th year of Augustus, and in the 25th day of [the Egyptian month] Pachon [May 20] … Further, others say that He was born on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi [April 20 or 21].
In other writing of this time, May 20, April 18 or 19, March 25, January 2, November 17, and November 20 are all suggested. Various factors contributed to the selection of December 25 as a date of celebration: it was the date of the winter solstice on the R it was about nine months after March 25, the date of the vernal equinox and a date linked to the conception of J and it was the date of a Roman pagan festival in honor of the Sun god .
December 25 was the date of the
on the Roman calendar. Jesus chose to be born on the shortest day of the year for symbolic reasons, according to an early sermon by : "Hence it is that He was born on the day which is the shortest in our earthly reckoning and from which subsequent days begin to increase in length. He, therefore, who bent low and lifted us up chose the shortest day, yet the one whence light begins to increase."
Linking Jesus to the Sun was supported by various Biblical passages. Jesus was considered to be the "Sun of righteousness" prophesied by Malachi. John describes him as "the light of the world."
Such solar symbolism could support more than one date of birth. An anonymous work known as De Pascha Computus (243) linked the idea that creation began at the spring equinox, on March 25, with the conception or birth (the word nascor can mean either) of Jesus on March 28, the day of the creation of the sun in the Genesis account. One translation reads: "O the splendid and divine providence of the Lord, that on that day, the very day, on which the sun was made, the 28 March, a Wednesday, Christ should be born. For this reason Malachi the prophet, speaking about him to the people, fittingly said, 'Unto you shall the sun of righteousness arise, and healing is in his wings.'"
In the 17th century,
argued that the date of Christmas was selected to correspond with the solstice.
According to Steven Hijmans of the University of Alberta, "It is cosmic symbolism ... which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the , December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the
as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception."
The Calculation hypothesis suggests that an earlier holiday held on March 25 became associated with the Incarnation. Modern scholars refer to this feast as the Quartodecimal. Christmas was then calculated as nine months later. The Calculation hypothesis was proposed by French writer
In modern times, March 25 is celebrated as . This holiday was created in the seventh century and was assigned to a date that is nine months before Christmas, in addition to being the traditional date of the equinox. It is unrelated to the Quartodecimal, which had been forgotten by this time.
Early Christians celebrated the life of Jesus on a date considered equivalent to 14 Nisan (Passover) on the local calendar. Because Passover was held on the 14th of the month, this feast is referred to as the Quartodecimal. All the major events of Christ's life, especially the passion, were celebrated on this date. In his letter to the Corinthians, Paul mentions Passover, presumably celebrated according to the local calendar in Corinth. Tertullian (d. 220), who lived in Latin-speaking North Africa, gives the date of passion celebration as March 25. The date of the passion was moved to Good Friday in 165 when
created Easter by reassigning the Resurrection to a Sunday. According to the Calculation hypothesis, celebration of the quartodecimal continued in some areas and the feast became associated with Incarnation.
The Calculation hypothesis is considered academically to be "a thoroughly viable hypothesis", though not certain. It was a traditional Jewish belief that great men lived a whole number of years, without fractions, so that Jesus was considered to have been conceived on March 25, as he died on March 25, which was calculated to have coincided with 14 Nisan.
A passage in Commentary on the Prophet Daniel (204) by
identifies December 25 as the date of the nativity. This passage is generally considered a late interpellation. The manuscript includes another passage, one that is more likely to be authentic, that gives the passion as March 25.
(c. 160 – c. 240) gave March 25 as the day of creation and of the conception of Jesus in his universal history. This conclusion was based on solar symbolism, with March 25 the date of the equinox. As this implies a birth in December, it is sometimes claimed to be the earliest identification of December 25 as the nativity. However, Africanus was not such an influential writer that it is likely he determined the date of Christmas.
The tractate De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis Domini nostri Iesu Christi et Iohannis Baptistae, falsely attributed to , also argued that Jesus was conceived and crucified on the same day of the year and calculated this as March 25. This anonymous tract also states: "But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December ... the eight before the calends of January [25 December] ..., But they call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord...? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice."
The rival "History of Religions" hypothesis suggests that the Church selected December 25 date to appropriate festivities held by the Romans in honor of the Sun god Sol Invictus. This feast was established by Aurelian in 274.
An explicit expression of this theory appears in an annotation of uncertain date added to a manuscript of a work by 12th-century Syrian bishop . The scribe who added it wrote: "It was a custom of the Pagans to celebrate on the same 25 December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these solemnities and revelries the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnised on that day."
In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday
and was therefore a "paganization" that debased the true church. It has been argued that, on the contrary, the Emperor , who in 274 instituted the holiday of the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, did so partly as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date already important for Christians in Rome.
Hermann Usener and others proposed that the Christians chose this day because it was the Roman feast celebrating the birthday of Sol Invictus. Modern scholar S. E. Hijmans, however, states that "While they were aware that pagans called this day the 'birthday' of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas." Moreover, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor
placed a Sol Invictus on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.
In the judgement of the Church of England Liturgical Commission, the History of Religions hypothesis has been challenged by a view based on an old tradition, according to which the date of Christmas was fixed at nine months after April 7 [ March 25], the date of the vernal equinox, on which the
was celebrated.
With regard to a December religious feast of the sun as a god (Sol), as distinct from a solstice feast of the (re)birth of the astronomical sun, one scholar has commented that, "while the winter solstice on or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas". "Thomas Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian's dedication of a temple to the sun god in the Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the 'Birthday of the Invincible Sun' on December 25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect." The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the religious celebrations of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun and of the birthday of Jesus, stating that the hypothesis that December 25 was chosen for celebrating the birth of Jesus on the basis of the belief that his conception occurred on March 25 "potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian's decree, which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and challenge".
As Christmas was unknown to the early Christian writers, it must have been introduced sometime after 300. Irenaeus and Tertullian omit it from their lists of feasts, and Origen writes that in the Scriptures sinners alone, not saints, celebrate their birthday. Arnobius can still ridicule the "birthdays" of the gods. The first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. The feast was introduced to the Eastern Roman Empire after the death of Emperor , who favored the
heresy, in 378.
In 245, , writing about , commented that Scripture mentions only sinners as celebrating their birthdays, namely Pharaoh, who then had his chief baker hanged (), and Herod, who then had John the Baptist beheaded (), and mentions saints as cursing the day of their birth, namely Jeremiah () and Job (). In 303,
ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods, a passage cited as evidence that Arnobius was unaware of any nativity celebration. Since Christmas does not celebrate Christ's birth "as God" but "as man", this does not necessarily show that Christmas was not a feast at this time.
The fact the
of North Africa celebrated Christmas suggests that the feast was established by the time that church was created in 311. The earliest known Christmas celebration is recorded in a . This manuscript is thought to record a celebration that occurred in 336. It was prepared privately for Filocalus, a Roman aristocrat, in 354. The reference in question states, "VIII kal. ian. natus Christus in Betleem Iudeae". This reference is in a section of the manuscript that was copied from earlier source material. The document also contains the earliest known reference to the feast of Sol Invictus.
the birth of Jesus was already celebrated in connection with the
on January 6. Epiphany emphasized celebration of the . December 25 celebration was imported into the East later: in Antioch by
towards the end of the fourth century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria only in the following century. Even in the West, January 6 celebration of the nativity of Jesus seems to have continued until after 380.
In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part of
(January 6), although Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of
following the death of the pro- Emperor
in 378. The feast was introduced at
in 379, and at
in about 380. The feast disappeared after
resigned as
in 381, although it was reintroduced by
in about 400.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus' birth, with certain elements having origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated around the winter solstice by pagan populations who were later . These elements, including the
from Yule and gift giving from , became
into Christmas over the centuries. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, -like state in the , to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation. Additionally, the celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain
groups, such as the , due to concerns that it was too pagan or unbiblical.
also reject the celebration of Christmas.
Mosaic of Jesus as Christus Sol (Christ the Sun) in Mausoleum M in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under
Prior to and through the
centuries, —especially those centered on the —were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached. Many modern Christmas customs have been directly influenced by such festivals, including gift-giving and merrymaking from the Roman , greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year, and
and various foods from
feasts. The Egyptian deity , son to goddess , was celebrated at the winter solstice. Horus was often depicted being fed by his mother, which also influenced the symbolism of .
The pre-Christian —including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called , held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography stem from Yule, including the , , and the . Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the ), the long-bearded god
is referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, whereas the rest of the gods are referred to as "Yule beings".
In eastern Europe also, old pagan traditions were incorporated into Christmas celebrations, an example being the , which was incorporated into the .
The Nativity, from a 14th- a liturgical book containing texts and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year
In the , Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in
focused on the visit of the . But the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of ), now known as Advent. In Italy, former
traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the
(December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after
was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King
was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King
was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
The coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas of 800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday
By the , the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various
celebrated Christmas.
of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.
also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. ""—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on , and there was special Christmas ale.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated , , and other evergreens. Christmas
during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607,
insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the
in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the
or , and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
Public notice in
deeming Christmas illegal and sacrilegious
Following the , many of the new denominations, including the
and , continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet
penned , a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at , states that
"inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America." Among the congregations of the , Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal .
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the , strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of " or the "rags of ". In contrast, the established
"pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party." The
also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King
directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the
victory over Charles I during the , England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks
was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with
and shouted
slogans. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.
The Examination and Trial of , (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.
in 1660 ended the ban, but many Calvinist clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian
discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though
commanded its celebration in 1618,
was scant. The
officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days". It was not until 1958 that Christmas again became a Scottish public holiday.
Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no." The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.
of New England shared radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. The Plymouth Pilgrims put their loathing for the day into practice in 1620 when they spent their first Christmas Day in the New World working – thus demonstrating their complete contempt for the day. Non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in
in 1659. The ban by the Puritans was revoked in 1681 by English governor , however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
At the same time, Christian residents of
observed the holiday freely.
Settlers, pre-eminently the
settlers of ,
in Pennsylvania and the
Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the , when it was considered an English custom.
(German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the
on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
With the atheistic
in power during the era of , Christian Christmas
were banned and the
was renamed the "equality cake" under .
and the . From ' , 1843.
In the UK, Christmas Day became a
in 1834, Boxing Day was added in 1871.
In the early-19th century, writers imagined
Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843,
wrote the novel
that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation." Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from the tale, , was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the
and the growth of , which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.
The Queen's Christmas tree at , published in the Illustrated London News, 1848, and republished in , Philadelphia, December 1850
became a synonym for , with
dismissive of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial
was produced by . The revival of the
began with 's "Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern" (1833), with the first appearance in print of "", "", "" and "", popularized in Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
In Britain, the
was introduced in the early 19th century following the personal union with the
by , wife of . In 1832, the future
wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with , , and
placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin , by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.
An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the
in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in the United States in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several
which appear in his
and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in , Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned, and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
A Norwegian Christmas, 1846 painting by
The Christmas Visit. Postcard, c.1910
wrote the poem
(popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated
that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England,
includes a character who complains that
was lost in a shopping spree.
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S.,
detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, though every year makes it more so." In , a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."
The First Congregational Church of Rockford, , "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen states including several from
had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875,
introduced the
to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a .
Up to the 1950s, in the UK, many Christmas customs were restricted to the upper classes and better-off families. The mass of the population had not adopted many of the Christmas rituals that later became general. The
was rare. Christmas dinner might be beef—certainly not turkey. In their stockings children might get an apple, orange and sweets. Full celebration of a family Christmas with all the trimmings only became widespread with increased prosperity from the 1950s. National papers were published on Christmas Day until 1912. Post was still delivered on Christmas Day until 1961. League football matches continued in Scotland until the 1970s while in England they ceased at the end of the 1950s.
of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 30s and 40s, the
encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including E the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on
as a protest against the holiday. It was not until the
in 1991 that the
ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.
European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in , "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies."
As Christmas celebrations began to be held around the world even outside traditional Christian cultures in the 20th century, some Muslim-majority countries have banned the practice of Christmas, claiming it undermines .
Map of countries where Christmas is not a formal public holiday either on December 24/25 or January 6/7.
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and
in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. ); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the secular aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees.
Countries in which Christmas is not a formal public holiday include Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (excepting
and ), Comoros, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kuwait, Laos, Libya, Maldives, Mauritania, Mongolia, Morocco, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and Yemen. Christmas celebrations around the world can vary markedly in form, reflecting differing cultural and national traditions.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For Christians, participating in a religious service plays an important part in the recognition of the season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. In
countries, people hold religious processions or
in the days preceding Christmas. In other countries, secular processions or parades featuring Santa Claus and other seasonal figures are often held. Family reunions and the exchange of gifts are a widespread feature of the season. Gift giving takes place on Christmas Day in most countries. Others practice gift giving on December 6, Saint Nicholas Day, and January 6, .
presepe/presepio, or Nativity scene. Local crèches are renowned for their ornate decorations and symbolic figurines, often mirroring daily life.
The practice of putting up special decorations at Christmas has a long history. In the 15th century, it was recorded that in London it was the custom at Christmas for every house and all the parish churches to be "decked with , ivy, , and whatsoever the season of the year afforded to be green". The heart-shaped leaves of
were said to symbolize the coming to earth of Jesus, while
was seen as protection against pagans and witches, its thorns and red berries held to represent the
worn by Jesus at the crucifixion and the blood he shed.
Clifton Mill in
is the site of this Christmas display with over 3.5 million lights.
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint
from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful
in Poland, which imitate 's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi (,
and ), or the
crèches in
France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called . In certain parts of the world, notably , living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the
is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family .
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are , , and . Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his , while green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter, and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the , symbolizing royalty.
On Christmas Day, the Christ Candle in the center of the
is traditionally lit in many .
is considered by some as
tradition and ritual surrounding the , which included the use of
boughs, and an
according to eighth-century biographer ,
(634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an axe to an oak tree dedicated to
and pointed out a , which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to
and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the . The
phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the . The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century though many argue that
began the tradition in the 16th century.
in New York
From Germany the custom was introduced to Britain, first via , wife of , and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of . By 1841 the Christmas tree had become even more widespread throughout Britain. By the 1870s, people in the United States had adopted the custom of putting up a Christmas tree. Christmas trees may be decorated with
Since the 19th century, the , a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, , red , and . Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with
foliage. The display of
has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated , , and other Christmas figures.
Other traditional decorations include , , , , , and . Both the displaying of wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an , make up Christmas wreaths and are designed to prepare
for the Advent season. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate the fact that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played from speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on , the evening of January 5.
Christmas carolers in
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-century . Latin hymns such as "", written by , Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to . "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poet
(d. 413) is still sung in some churches today.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under
into a sequence of rhymed . In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional .
By the 13th century, in France, Germany, and particularly, Italy, under the influence of , a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native language developed. Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of , a
chaplain, who lists twenty-five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of , who went from house to house.
Child singers in , 1841
The songs we know specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on
chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "", "", and "" can be traced directly back to the . They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "" (O Come all ye faithful) appears in its current form in the mid-18th century, although the words may have originated in the 13th century.
Singing of carols initially suffered a decline in popularity after the
in northern Europe, although some Reformers, like , wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship. Carols largely survived in rural communities until the revival of interest in popular songs in the 19th century. The 18th-century English reformer
understood the importance of music to worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, which were influential in the
in the United States, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "".
Performed by the U.S. Army Band Chorus
Problems playing this file? See .
wrote a melody adapted to fit Wesley's words. In Austria in 1818 Mohr and Gruber made a major addition to the genre when they composed "" for the St. Nicholas Church, Oberndorf. ' Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833) contained the first appearance in print of many now-classic English carols, and contributed to the mid-Victorian revival of the festival.
Completely secular Christmas seasonal songs emerged in the late 18th century. "" dates from 1784, and the American "" was copyrighted in 1857. In the 19th and 20th century, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holidays songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
cooked on , the Sunday before the beginning of the
is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food that is served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions, such as , have special meals for Christmas Eve, when 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as , ,
In Poland and other parts of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, fish often is used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden it is common with a special variety of , where ham, meatballs and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular throughout the world. The
traditionally serve , a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after
and throughout the Christmas season. Slovaks prepare the traditional Christmas bread ,
in France,
in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German ,
cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods.
traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture).
such as brandy, rum or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
A 1907 Christmas card with
and some of his reindeer
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial , produced by
in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging .
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities, and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the , with , or
such as the , or a white , which can represent both the
on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more
and can depict , mythical figures such as , objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes and the wildlife of the northern winter. There are even humorous cards and genres depicting nostalgic scenes of the past such as
shoppers in idealized 19th-century streetscapes.
Some prefer cards with a poem, prayer, while others distance themselves from religion with an all-inclusive "Season's greetings".
Christmas stamp released in the United States in 1982, featuring a painting by
A number of nations have issued
at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail , and they are popular with . These stamps are regular , unlike , and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in considerable quantities.
In 1898 a Canadian stamp was issued to mark the inauguration of the Imperial Penny Postage rate. The stamp features a map of the globe and bears an inscription "XMAS 1898" at the bottom. In 1937, Austria issued two "Christmas greeting stamps" featuring a
and the signs of the . In 1939, Brazil issued four
stamps with designs featuring the
and a , an
and child, the
and a child, and a mother and child.
and the United Kingdom's
regularly issue Christmas-themed stamps each year.
Christmas gifts underneath a Christmas tree.
The exchanging of
is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for
and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with , and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the . The practice of gift giving in the
celebration of
may have influenced Christian Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of the , however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life."
Christmas gift-bringers in Europe
, known as
in the Netherlands, is considered by many to be the original Santa Claus
A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are , also known as
(derived from the
for Saint Nicholas), Père No?l, Kris K ; ; Babbo N ; and . The Scandinavian tomte is sometimes depicted as a
instead of Santa Claus.
The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name Santa Claus can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas, which means simply Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was a 4th-century
of , a city in the
of , whose ruins are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from modern
in southwest Turkey. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the
in 16th–17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted in English to Kris Kringle, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including
cartoonist
(). Following the , some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of
and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
In 1809, the
convened and retroactively named Sancte Claus the patron saint of , the
name for . At his first American appearance in 1810, Santa Claus was drawn in bishops' robes. However, as new artists took over, Santa Claus developed more secular attire. Nast drew a new image of "Santa Claus" annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the modern vision of the figure, perhaps based on the English figure of Father Christmas. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s and continues through the present day.
Father Christmas, a jolly, stout, bearded man who typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, predates the Santa Claus character. He is first recorded in early 17th century England, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and
rather than the bringing of gifts. In , his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French
evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while
is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the . It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by , or . In other versions,
make the toys. His wife is referred to as .
Santa Claus reacts to a toy request ( as Santa)
There has been some opposition to the narrative of the American evolution of Saint Nicholas into the modern Santa. It has been claimed that the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost half a century after the end of the American War of Independence. Moreover, a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas. However, not all scholars agree with Jones's findings, which he reiterated in a book-length study in 1978; Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive and well from the early settlement of the
Current tradition in several
countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional
of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
(Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the
( in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Je?i?ko in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from
on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a 's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by . Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.
Some jurisdictions of the , including those of , , , , Montenegro, , and , mark feasts using the older . As of 2017, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern , which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.
However, other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of , , , , , , , , , and the , among others, began using the
in the early 20th century, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25, and which is also the date of Christmas among Western Christians.
A further complication is added by the fact that the
continues the original ancient
practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because the Armenian Church in Armenia uses the Gregorian calendar.
However, there is also a small , which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.
In summary, there are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.
Church or section
Gregorian date
Julian calendar
January 19
Correspondence between Julian January 6 and Gregorian January 19 holds until 2100; in the following century the difference will be one day more.
Gregorian calendar
jurisdictions, including those of , , , , , , , , and the
December 25
December 25
Revised Julian calendar usage started in the early 20th century
Other Eastern Orthodox: , , , , Belarus, Moldova, Montenegro,
Also, some
Catholics.
December 25
Julian calendar
Correspondence between Julian December 25 and Gregorian January 7 of the following year holds until 2099; from 2100 to 2199 the difference will be one day more.
29 (corresponding to Julian December 25 or 26)
January 7 or 8
Since the Coptic calendar's leap day is inserted in what the Julian calendar considers September, the following Koiak 29 falls one day later than usual in the Julian and Gregorian calendars
29 or 28 (corresponding to Julian December 25)
After the Ethiopian insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is September, Christmas is celebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of 9 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation. The
uses the same calendar but, like the Coptic Church, does not make this adjustment.
, , secular world
December 25
Gregorian calendar
December 25
Christmas market in , Germany
Christmas market – Great Market Hall, Budapest
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world. Sales increase dramatically as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before
(October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street
are turned on. In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season. Figures from the
reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas. Industries completely dependent on Christmas include , of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas Trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the U.S. in 2002. In the UK in 2010, up to ?8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.
Each year (most notably 2000)
is increased for Christmas shopping.
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for b almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In , the
prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation.
release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films,
movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the .
One 's analysis calculates that, despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a
under orthodox , because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as , imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.
Christmas has at times been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources. Historically it was prohibited by
when they briefly held power in England during the
(), and in
where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659. The , which was dominated by , passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become
until 1958. Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by
such as the
and more recently majority Muslim states such as Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei.
Modern scholars such as ,
consider both Gospel narratives of the birth of Jesus to be non-historical, arguing that there are contradictions between them. Many biblical scholars view the discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than historical accounts.
Some Christians and organizations such as 's
cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas"). Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasingly , avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees. In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of . In the U.S. and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being . Groups such as the
have initiated court cases to bar the display of images and other material referring to Christmas from public property, including schools. Such groups argue that government-funded displays of Christmas imagery and traditions violate the , which prohibits the establishment by Congress of a national religion. In 1984, the
that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of , did not violate the First Amendment. In November 2009, the
in Philadelphia upheld a school district's ban on the singing of Christmas carols. The
declined to hear an appeal.
American Muslim scholar
has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.
winter festival
—BBC News. Retrieved September 30, 2008.
. Gallup, Inc. December 24, .
Gwynne, Paul (2011). . John Wiley & Sons.  .
Ramzy, John. . Coptic Orthodox Church Network 2011.
Kelly, Joseph F (2010). . Liturgical Press.  .
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